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A 

COMPLETE GRAMMAR 

OF THE 

ITALIAN LANGUAGE, 

COMPRISING 

ALL THE RULES AND PECULIARITIES 
OF THE SAID LANGUAGE, 

EXPLAINED 

IN THE BEST AND SIMPLEST MANNER, 

WITH 

NOTES AND OBSERVATIONS, 

AND 

ILLUSTRATED 

BY NUMEROUS AND APPROPRIATE EXAMPLES FROM THE .MOST 
CELEBRATED WRITERS. 



By M. SANTAGNELLO, 

PROFESSOR OF THE ITALIAN LANGUAGE. 



FOURTH EDITION, 

REVISED, IMPROVED, AND ENLARGED. 




LONDON: 

PRINTED FOR LONGMAN, REES, ORME, AND CO. ; HURST, 
CHANCE, AND CO.; H. COLBURN ; GEO. B. WHITTAKER; 

t j. souter; \nd simpkin and Marshall. 



i 



1828. 



{ \o°\ 

4>^ 



LONDON- 

SHACKEIX AND BAYLTS, JOHNSON^- COURT*, FLEET-STREET 



TO THE 

MISSES KNIGHT, 

OF 

MONTAGUE SQUARE. 

THIS GRAMMAR 

IS 
RESPECTFULLY INSCRIBED, 
BY 
THELR OBEDIENT SERVANT, 

M. SANT AGNELLG 



Signor Santagnello continues to teach the Italian 
Language, grammatically. 

Miss Santagnello teaches the Italian Language 
grammatically, and likewise gives instruction in Land- 
scape Drawing in a finished style, both in chalk and pencil, 

No. 7, Nutford-place, Bryanstone-square, 



TO THE READER. 



People in this country entertain an idea, namely, 
that by learning a foreign language through the medium 
of another which is likewise foreign, a person may 
become acquainted with both languages at once. This, 
however, is an erroneous idea, and even if adopted by 
sensible persons, it is not the result of their own reflec- 
tion, but the insinuation of foreigners, who, coming 
hither without knowing English, have introduced a new 
method of communicating the rules of the language 
they are to teach, in another more familiar to themselves 
than to the learner. 

A person can never become well acquainted with the 
rules and idioms of a foreign language, unless these very 
rules and idioms be explained in his ow r n mother tongue ; 
for if they are set down in a language with which he is 
not conversant, it is next to impossible for him to make 
a progress in his favourite pursuit : and although he be 
well acquainted with it, so as to be able to proceed in his 



VI TO THE KEADEK. 



study, yet, besides his being always apt to make bar- 
barisms, this study will be attended with infinite trouble, 
and the progress of the learner considerably delayed. 

A similar circumstance occurs in learning Italian. 
As the English of all ranks and all classes are more or 
less proficient in the French language, foreigners, unac- 
quainted with the English language, in order to remove 
the difficulty which would attend their teaching Italian 
with an English grammar, persuade the inexperienced 
student to learn Italian by means of rules written in 
French ; who, flattered by the hope of learning two lan- 
guages at once, will perceive but too late that he has 
only learned at once to make Gallicisms in speaking 
Italian, and Italicisms in speaking French. 

In order to prevent the evils which I knew by expe- 
rience would result from so absurd a practice, although 
I could speak but very little English when I began to 
teach Italian, I advised my pupils to learn Italian with 
a grammar written in English. My advice was soon 
put into execution, and those learners who had studied 
with a French grammar for a considerable time, but 
with little success, began to improve rapidly as soon as 
they made use of an English one. 

The English grammars of the Italian language, how- 
ever, which were then in use, being Veneron^s and Bar- 
rettfs, both old, deficient in rules, and, what is worse, with- 
out exercises, I formed the design* so soon as I should be 
better acquainted with the language, of making a com- 
pilation on the subject which should answer the expec- 
tation of students. It was not long before I felt capable 



TO THE HEADER. Vll 

of the undertaking, and accordingly having succeeded 
in the completion of my task, I published it with every 
mark of approbation. It has since gone through three 
editions in a few years> and is still in frequent demand, 
which is an evident proof of its merit. 

Encouraged by the favour of the public, and solicited 
by the students of Italian, to compose another on the 
same plan, but on a more enlarged scale, which would 
leave the learner of this fine language nothing farther to 
desire for the attainment of it, I have now compiled one, 
(the subject of the following pages,) which I feel confi- 
dent will answer their expectations. 



PREFACE. 



As the number of Italian Grammars now extant is 
very great, a new compilation might be considered as 
unnecessary and useless. This would certainly be the 
case if these grammars were written in English, and 
were complete; but as most of them are written in 
French, and do not contain all that is necessary for the 
attainment of the Italian language, as their different 
titles of Abridgment, Abbreviator, Lessons, &c. import, 
a new and complete compilation, abundant in rules 
and examples, written in English, will undoubtedly 
be a desirable object to the learner of this beautiful 
language. 

The author of this volume some years back offered 
to the public a concise Italian Grammar, which, on 
account of its clearness and precision, was received with 
every mark of approbation by the learners. It was, 
however, noticed by some fastidious critics, who, either 



X PREFACE. 

through ignorance of the subject in question, or envy 
for its unprecedented success, directed their censures 
against some innovations, which were introduced for the 
better information of learners, and which subsequent ex- 
perience has proved to be necessary as well as useful. 

Of these innovations, and of the criticisms which they 
have incurred, the author does not intend to speak in 
this place, as he has given proper reasons for his pro- 
ceedings in their respective places, when necessity 
prompted him to vindicate his cause, and to recriminate 
on those who were so bold as to condemn what perhaps 
they (though Italians) could or would not under- 
stand. 

The present compilation is divided into four parts, 
viz. : — 

The first consists of an ample treatise on Pronuncia- 
tion, which, through the medium of a parallel drawn 
between the Italian and English languages, will com- 
municate to the student the right sound of the 
most difficult syllables and words,* as well as can be 
done without the assistance of a master, and will like- 
wise prove serviceable to any teacher of Italian who is 
not a native of Italy. 

The second treats of all the Parts of Speech in their 



* It is certain that a great analogy in the pronunciation of an 
infinite number of syllables and words, exists between the Italian 
and English languages, which does not appear between the Italian 
and French, and that may clearly be perceived by comparing the said 
treatise with any other introduced in a French grammar. 



PREFACE. XI 

simple or natural state, exhibiting articles, nouns, pro- 
nouns, according to their diversified uses ; a new clas- 
sification of the irregular verbs, which will save the 
student infinite trouble in committing them to memory; 
and also exact and proper rules concerning the uses of 
the tenses, with appropriate examples from the best 
authorities. 

The third contains the Syntax, or construction of all 
the said parts of speech, divided into rules which are 
enforced by analogous examples, and attended with suit- 
able remarks, so as to give satisfaction to the learner, 
and at the same time make him acquainted with those 
niceties and modes of expression, which are so essential 
in learning a language. 

The fourth and last part comprehends Orthography, 
with all its appurtenances, such as the retrenching, aug- 
menting, syncopating, dividing, and compounding of 
words, together with prosody and its concomitants. 

Lastly, the work concludes with an Appendix, which 
not only teaches to read and understand the writings of 
the best authors in prose ; but also points out just rules 
for composing in a similar style of elegance. This 
Appendix, which is not to be found in any other Gram- 
mar compiled for the use of foreigners, the author has 
explained in so peculiar a manner, as to make the student 
easily acquainted with its rules. 

In short, this Work, which is essentially different from 
any other of its kind that has hitherto been offered to 
the public, contains not only all that is to found in the 
most celebrated Italian Grammars, such as Buommattei^ 



Xil PREFACE. 

Corticelli's, Soave's, Cinonio , s, Dolce's, and others, which 
have been written for Italians ; but also a great number 
of rules and observations, which »no Italian could point 
out, if unacquainted with the English language. It has 
also the advantage over all other grammars, mentioned 
in the beginning of this Preface, as the author has not 
set down the smallest rule, nor made the most minute 
observation, without enforcing it by analogous examples 
drawn from the best authorities, with a correct, though 
not literal, translation of the passages in English, which 
will at once show the right sense of the sentences, and 
the proper mode of translating from one language to 
another. 

In addition to all these advantages, this Grammar is 
accompanied with Exercises on a new plan, which being 
generally composed of sentences extracted from the 
English and Roman histories, and other works of merit, 
will, the author presumes, prove both useful and in- 
structive. 

Finally, this Grammar, together with its Exercises, is 
so compiled as to be useful to those students who either 
have not the means of employing a master, or who live 
too far from those places where any may be found. 



INDEX. 



Grammar 1 

Italian grammar • ib. 



PART I. 

Ofletters, syllables, and words i...,. Z 

Of the alphabet *.. ib. 

Observations on the alphabet 4 

Of the divisions ofletters 5 

General observations on the sounds of letters ib* 

-A 6 

B ? 

C, and its different sounds when accompanied with other 

letters . .. ,, # .. ib. 

D,E , 10 

List of words in which e is differently sounded 12 

F . 15 

G, and its different sounds when accompanied with other 

letters ib. 

H,I 18 

J,L,M . 19 

N .,.._. so 

O „„ 21 

List of words in which o is differently sounded 23 

P,Q 26 

R 27 

S, and its different sounds ib. 

T.. ..„ 29 



XIV INDEX. 

Pao;e 

U, V.. 30 

Z, and its different sounds 31 

List of words in which % is sounded strong likefc 33 

List of words in which zis sounded likecte ib. 

List of words in which two z 9 s are sounded like ts 34 

List of words in which two s's are sounded like ds 35 

Ph,K,X,Y 36 

Observations on the letters .. 37 

Diphthongs 38 

Of the number of diphthongs ib. 

Observations on diphthongs 39 

Of the division of diphthongs „. 40 

Of the genders of letters , 41 



PART II. 

Chap.I. A general view of the parts of speech 43 

Chap. II. Of articles in general 45 

Declension of the article/o 47 

the article il 48 

the article la 49 

General observations on lo, il, la, i, gli 9 le, as articles 

and relative pronouns 50 

Of the indefinite article 53 

Declension of the indefinite article with a substan- 
tive , 54 

Of the numeral uno .. ib. 

Declension of uno with a substantive 55 

Chap. III. Of nouns in general ..„ 56 

Of the gender of substantives ending in a 57 

substantives ending in e 59 

substantives ending in i 60 

substantives ending in o 61 

substantives ending in u 62 

Of the number ,. ib. 

Rules to form the plural of nouns ending in a 63 

r — nouns ending in e 64 

nouns ending in i 65 

r — — nouns ending in o ...... ib. 

. , nouns ending in u ...... 69 

Of heteroclite nouns ib. 

Of nouns having two singulars and two plurals 70 

S three singulars and one plural .... ib. 

— : one singular of the masculine 

gender and two plurals, one masculine and 

another feminine 71 



pi. 

Of d 



INDEX. XV 

Page 
Chap. III. Of nouns being masculine in the singular, and femi- 
nine in the plural 75 

having one masculine singular and three 

plurals,&c ib, 

defective nouns 74 

Of collective nouns ib. 

Of adjectives and the degrees of comparison in 

general . 75 

Of adjectives or positives 76 

Of comparatives 77 

Of superlatives 79 

Of augmentatives and diminutives 81 

Of numeral nouns in general 85 

Of the cardinal or principal numbers 84 

Observations on cardinal numbers 85 

Of ordinal numbers 87 

Of collective or distributive numbers * 89 

Chap. IV. Of pronouns in general 90 

Of personal pronouns ib. 

Declension of personal pronouns... 91 

Observations on the personal pronouns in their first 

state 94 

disjunctive pronouns 95 

conjunctive pronouns ib. 

Of possessive pronouns 98 

Declension of possessive pronouns 99 

Of demonstrative pronouns ib. 

Observations on demonstrative pronouns 101 

Of relative pronouns 102 

Of interrogative pronouns 105 

Ofimproper pronouns 107 

Chap. V. Of the nature of verbs in general Ill 

Of numbers and persons 112 

Of the moods 113 

Of the tenses 115 

Of the present tense ib. 

Of the past tense 117 

Of the future tense , 122 

Of the subjunctive 124 

Of the imperative 125 

Remarks on the tenses 126 

Of the conjugation of personal verbs 128 

Conjugation of avere ib. 

: essere 133 

Observations on avere and essere 137 

Conjugation of regular verbs 138 

First conjugation.. ,. 139 



XVI INDEX. 

Page 

Chap. V. Remarks on verbs ending in are 143 

Second conjugation . 145 

List of regular verbs ending in ere 149 

Third conjugation 150 

List of verbs ending in ire 155 

Of irregular verbs ending in are, andare, dare, fare, 

and stare,ixom 157 to 161 

Of irregular verbs ending in ere long, from 162 to 176 

short ... 177 

Table of the classes of verbs ending in ere short .. .. 173 

First class 181 

Second class 182 

Third class .. 185 

Fourth class 187 

Fifth class .. 191 

List of verbs ending in ere, not included in the classes 193 

Of irregular verbs ending in ire .. 194 

List of verbs conjugated like sentire 195 

Observations on verbs ending in ire .. 196 

Of passive verbs 201 

Of reflective verbs 202 

Of reciprocal verbs J204 

Of impersonal verbs ., 210 

List of half impersonal verbs 211 

Chap. VI. Of the participle . 212 

Genders of the participle 215 

Of the formation of participles ib. 

List of syncopated participles 214 

Chap. VII. Of adverbs 217 

Of the formation of adverbs 218 

Lkt of adverbs 219 

Chap. VIILOf prepositions 226 

List of prepositions governing different cases ib. 

Chap.IX. Of conjunctions 229 

Chap. X. Of interjections 233 



PART III. 

Of syntax in general ,.. 235 

Syntax of the article, from 237 to 249 

Of the repetition of articles 250 

Syntax of adjectives, from . 251 to 262 

comparatives , 265 

Remarks on tanto with the correspondence ofquanto , .. 265 



- piu. 



270 



Syntax of superlatives and their position 271 



IXDEX. XV11 

Pae-e 

Of the government of superlatives 273 

Remarks on piii with the article 275 

Syntax of numeral nouns ..... 276 

Remarks on uno, ventuno, and all numbers ending in uno 277 

Syntax of personal pronouns in their first state 281 

— disjunctive pronouns 287 

conjunctive and relative pronouns, from 293 to 304 

Remarkson the different modes of address in Italian 305 

Syntax of possessive pronouns ,. 309 

demonstrative pronouns used as substantives 319 

Remarks on questi, quegli, costui, &c 321 

Syntax of demonstrative pronouns used as adjectives 323 

Remarks on questo, qaello, cotesto,cio 324 

Syntax of the relative pronouns die, quale, chi 326 

Remarks on che and quale 332 

Syntax of interrogative pronouns 336 

Remarks on the interrogative pronouns 338 

Syntax of indeterminate or improper pronouns, from .. 338 to 357 

verbs .c 358 

Of the agreement of the verb with its nominative case, from 

358 to 367 
Of the position of the verb finite, when accompanied with its 

nominative case expressed or understood 368 

Of the government of verbs ,.... 372 

Active verbs governing an accusative and a genitive , .. .. 373 

Verbs governing an accusative and a genitive 374 

— '- ■ an ablative 375 

Neuter verbs having two nominative cases 377 

— governing a genitive ib. 

— dative 378 

ablative ,, ib. 

Reflective verbs governing a genitive 379 

dative ib. 

an ablative 380 

■ _ different prepositions ib. 

Verbs governing the infinitive with di before it , 382 

a before it 584 

without a preposition ib. 

Construction of the infinitive 387 

Nature and construction of the gerund 388 

Syntax of participles 392 

Of the participle present ib. 

past, from 394 to 401 

past, accompanied with the verb avere ib. 

Of participles followed by an infinitive without a preposition ... 405 
Of the agreement of participles with more substantives than one 407 
Syntax of adverbs .... 409 



XY11I INDEX. 

Remarks on non, no, si , ....................... 411 

.qua, qui 413 

— costi, costa . .. » . <. .. •• ib. 

la, cold,ivi, quivi, ci,&i * 414 

donde,onde 415 

Syntax of prepositions 416 

Remarks on some prepositions d 418 

Syntax of conjunctions 420 

Conjunctions governing the subjunctive...^ 421 

sometimes the indicative, and some- 
times the subjunctive 423 

Syntax of interjections ., 427 



PART IV. 

Chap. I. Rules for retrenching words 429 

Rules for abridging verbs 431 

General remarks on the abridgment of words ...... 452' 

Chap. II. Rules for augmenting words 434 

Chap. III. Rules for syncopating words 436 

Chap. IV. Rules for dividing words 437 

Chap. V. Of compounded words 439 

Observations on compounded words 440 

Chap. VI. Rules for placing the accent 441 

Chap. VII. Rules for placing the apostrophe 445 

Chap. VIII. Of quantity 444 

Chap. IX. Of punctuation 447 

Of the comma 448 

Of the semicolon, colon, and full stop 453 

Of the interrogative point 454 

Of the exclamatory point ib. 

Of the dash 455 

Of the parenthesis ib. 

Chap. X. Of the capital letters 456 



APPENDIX. 

Of the figurative syntax 459 

Of the ellipsis ib. 

Of the pleonasm 462 

Oftheenallage 4 ^ 5 

Of the hyperbate 466 



GRAMMAR. 



Grammar may be considered as consisting of two 
species, universal and particular. 

Grammar in general, or universal grammar, explains 
the principles which are common to all languages. 

Particular grammar applies those general principles to 
a particular language, modifying them according to the 
genius of that language, and the established practice of 
the best speakers and writers by whom it is used 



ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 

Italian Grammar is the art of speaking and writing 
the Italian language with propriety. 

This is the definition of grammarians respecting 
grammar, and, according to its import, every one may 
easily perceive that it is not poetry of which they speak : 
yet we see a great number of grammars abounding with 
examples, extracted from poetical works, intended to 
give authority to the rules which they set down for 
speaking in prose. Now, if, instead of saying, Datemi 
un poco d'acqua fresca^ Give me a drop of cold w T ater, 
we were to say, Datemi qualche stilla di fresco umore i 
we should perhaps be understood; but as it is an expres* 

B 



% INTRODUCTION. 

sion used by poets only, we should be thought pedantic, 
or as persons who are speaking in jest. 

In teaching, therefore, a language, a grammarian is 
to consider, that he is to teach speaking in prose, not in 
poetry; that he is to give rules for composing a dis- 
course, not for making verses ; that all the examples 
which serve to illustrate these rules are to be taken from 
prose writers ; and that the least poetical expression, 
however beautiful and elegant in poetry, would become 
ridiculous, were it to be used in prose. 

With these considerations in view, we have, in com- 
piling this work, refrained from making extracts from 
poets, to exemplify the different rules ; a practice not 
allowed in Italian, in which the fervid language of 
poetry is rather incompatible with the sober ornaments 
of prose : however, if the student finds, sometimes, any 
example extracted from poetical works in this grammar, 
he may be assured, that those extracts are inserted, 
because we could find in prose none analogous to the 
rule in question, or because we thought them proper to 
be applied in prose. 

We have divided this grammar into four parts, 
treating, 



Ora- 



In dividing this grammar, we have not had in view 
the right order of the subject, but the conveniency of 
the English student, or any foreigner who wishes to 
study Italian ; for, had we written for Italians, orthogra- 
phy should have been placed with pronunciation: but 
for a foreigner, it would be absurd to tell him the 
manner of spelling a word which he has never seen or 
heard. We, therefore, shall begin with the pronuncia- 
tion, in order that the learner may find assistance in 



1. 


Of Pronunciation. 


Delia Pronuncia. 


% 


Of the Parts of 


Delle Parti dell* 




Speech. 


ZIONE. 


8. 


Of Syntax. 


Delia Sintassi. 


4. 


Of Orthography. 


Dell' Ortografia 



OF PRONUNCIATION, 3 

learning by heart those words which are necessary to 
begin the study of Italian. These words we have ac- 
cented throughout the grammar, to render their pro- 
nunciation easy ; but the student, in writing exercises in 
Italian, is only to make use of the grave accent, which is 
found on the last vowel of a word. 



PART I. 
OF PRONUNCIATION. 

OF LETTERS, SYLLABLES, AND WORDS. 

A letter, tettera, is the first principle or least part of a 
word. 

The letters of the Italian language, called the alphabet, 
alfabeto, or abbicci, are twenty-two. 

These letters are the representation of certain articu- 
late sounds, the elements of the language. 

An articulate sound is the sound of the human voice, 
formed by the organs of speech. 

The elementary sounds, under their smallest combina- 
tion, produce a syllable. 

A syllable, sittaba, is a sound either simple or com- 
pound, pronounced by a single impulse of the voice, and 
constituting a word, or part of a word. 

Words are articulate sounds, and are used, by common 
consent, as signs of our ideas. 

A word, parola, of one letter, is called a monogram, 
monogramma ; of one syllable, composed of two or more 
letters, a monosyllable, monosillabo ; of two syllables, 
diss'illabo ; of three syllables, trisillabo ; and, lastly, of 
four or more syllables, polysyllable, polisillabo. 



OF THE ALPHABET. 

Alphabet is a word which comprehends all the letters 
necessary to speak a language. 

b2 



4 OF PRONUNCIATION. 

The alphabet, in Italian, consists of twenty-two letters, 
which are sounded thus : — 

A a is sounded like a, in a-rm. 

B b bi, in bi-scuit. 

C c chi, in chi-cane. 

D d di, in di-lute. 

E e e, in ever. 

F f , e'ffay. 

G g gi, ingin. 

H h ,..,... ahccah. 

j • > i, in Italy. 

L 1 [\\\"\\\\".\\.... ellay. 

M m , emmay. 

N n ennay. 

O o ,. o, in o-range. 

P p pi, in pi -ty. 

Q q coo, in coo-k. 

R r erray. 

S s essay. 

T t ti, in timid. 

U u oo, in oo-ze,, 

V v voo. 

Z z „ tzaytah. 

Observations. 

1. The capital letters are called, in Italian, lettere 
mpjuscole, and the small, minuscule. 

2. These six letters, b, c, d, g, p, t, which the Floren- 
tines sound bi, chi, di, as in the alphabet, are sounded 
bay, chay, day, jay, pay, tay, by the Romans, and the 
inhabitants of almost all the other provinces of Italy ; 
but as this regards only their name, and not their pro- 
nunciation when united to other letters, we think it is of 
little or no consequence to know their real name. 

3. Some grammarians give only twenty letters, sup- 
pressing j and v ; but as we think that the alphabet 
would be incorrect without them, we set them down at 
once, to save trouble and useless explanations. 



OF PRONUNCIATION. 



OF THE DIVISIONS OF LETTERS. 

Letters are divided into vowels and consonants. 

A vowel, vocale, is an articulate sound, that can be 
perfectly uttered by itself, and is formed without the 
help of any other sound. The vowels are a, e, i, o, u. 

A consonant, consonante, is an articulate sound, which 
cannot be perfectly uttered without the help of a vowel, 
but requires a vowel to express it fully. 

Consonants are divided into mutes and serai- vowels. 

The mutes, mute, cannot be sounded at all, without 
the aid of a vowel, or rather they are those whose sounds 
cannot be protracted. They are 6, c, d, g, p, q, tf, z. 

The semi-vowels, semivocdli, have an imperfect sound 
of themselves, or rather they are those whose sounds can 
be continued at pleasure, partaking of the nature of 
vowels, from which they derive their name. They are 
f y h* Z, 7?2 ? n, r, s. 

Four of the semi-vowels, namely, Z, m, n, r, are also 
distinguished by the name of liquids, liquide, from their 
readily uniting with other consonants, and flowing, as it 
were, into their sounds. 

The. letters J and v are consonants when they meet 
another vowel, otherwise they are vowels, the same as i 
and u; and thus they are to be spelled. 

A diphthong, dittongo, is the union of two or more 
vowels, pronounced by a single impulse of the voice, 
without losing their natural and particular sounds. 



GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE SOUNDS OF LETTERS, 
AND ON THE MOST DIFFICULT SYLLABLES AND WORDS 
IN THE ITALIAN LANGUAGE. 

Before we proceed on this subject, we think it is our 
duty to shew how false is the assertion of a modern 
grammarian, who, feeling unable, as it appears, to write 
down rules to communicate pronunciation to foreigners, 



O OF PRONUNCIATION. 

concludes the introduction of his grammar thus : — " Je 
ne dirai pas un seul mot sur la prononciation, dont on a 
beaucoup parle dans plusieurs autres grammaires, car 
j'ai Texperience que toutes regies donnees sur ce point 
sont inutiles " 

It is certainly a great undertaking to teach pronuncia- 
tion to foreigners by description alone, and especially for 
those who are either unacquainted, or imperfectly ac- 
quainted, with foreign languages ; but for those whose 
principal study is that of learning diem well, it is easy to 
give proper rules for it ; and though a few impediments 
will obstruct their way, such as the double sound of some 
letters, they are of such a nature as not to affect the 
principal object which they have in view. 

We do not intend to assert, that it is better to learn 
pronunciation by description than by learning it from 
the mouth of a native ; but we dare affirm, that 
proper rules on this subject are not at all useless, but 
beneficial, not only to those who cannot employ a master, 
but also to those who have the means of doing so, as, m 
the absence of their teachers, they may, if necessity 
requires, have recourse to them. 

Persuaded by these reasons, we laid down rules to 
communicate pronunciation, in our small grammar ; and 
finding that they have been attended with due benefit to 
students of all descriptions, either assisted by a master or 
not, we will set them down again in this new work, with 
more additions and improvements ; and hope that the 
discerning student, convinced of the utility of our plan, 
after a perusal of it, will give to it that approbation 
which it deserves. To proceed. 



A. 

The sound of a, in Italian, is that which is heard in 
uttering the English a, in the word arm ; and is effected 
by opening the mouth rather widely, and pushing the 
breath outwards, without any motion of the tongue. 



OF PRONUNCIATION. 



When, however, a is marked with the grave accent^ it is 
sounded a little sharper. 

citta city 

dara „ he will give 

fara he will make 



ama he i 

aria air 

arma .weapon 



B. 

This letter keeps one unvaried sound, at the beginning 
and the middle of words, and is uttered exactly as in 
English. 



barba beard 

bambola doll 

bambino ...... infant 



back) hiss 

bevve he drank 

buono good 



C, preceding a 9 o, w, Z, r, thus, ca 9 co, cu, cl 9 cr, has a 
hard sound, suono rotondo, and it is pronounced as in 
English. 



cane,.... dog 

come hom 

cura care 

clamore clamour 

cresce he grows 



cuoca cook 

poco little 

sicuro sure 

declama he declaims 

rincr&cere.. ..to be sorry 



C, preceding e, i, or ia, ie, io, iu, thus, ce, ci, cia y tie, 
cio, ciu, has a soft sound, suono chiaro, or sonante. 
Ce is sounded like che, in the word chess. 

diceva he said 

voce voice 



cena supper 

cera wax 

riceve , . . he receives 



croce cross 



Ci is sounded like chi, in the word chi-cane. 

cifra cypher 

cigno swan 

vicino neighbour 

Cia is sounded like cha, in the word charm. 



decima tenth 

amici .friends 

nemici enemies 



ciabatta old shoe 

ciabattino ....co&ler 
baciare to kiss 



bacia he kisses 

ciancia *f°ppery 

marcia .matter 



8 



OF PRONUNCIATION. 



Cie is sounded as if it were spelled cheeay, or rather like 
chee, in the word cheer; pronouncing, however, the ie 
with a single impulse of the voice, and putting the 
emphasis on e. 

cielo . heaven 

cieco blind 



ciera , 



.look 



ciecolina grig, eel 

ciecamente .Mindly 

cieca blind woman *J 



Cie, at the end of words, is either pronounced in two 
syllables, or loses its i. See nouns in a. 
Cio is sounded like cho, in the word chop. 

acciocche ....that 

cacio ...cheese 

bacio hiss 



cio tola ........cup 

ci otole tta .... small cup 

baciollo he kissed him 



Ciu is sounded like choo, in the word choose. 



ciuffole trifles 

cix\ffolo........flfe 

ciulla girl 



ciurma crowd 

fanciullo boy 

fan ciulla girl 



Che is sounded like ke, in the word 'kept. 



chente ....which 

ch el e claws of a scorpion 

cheto quiet 



ciocche that which, 

perchb ..wherefore 

poiche since 



chinare ..to bend 

chilo ...chyle 

inchino .Ibow 



Chi, absolute, or followed by a consonant, is sounded 
like kee, in the word keep. 

dechino declivity 

pochi .few 

cuochi cooks 

Chi, followed by another vowel, thus, chia, chie, chj, 
chiO) chiu, has a flat sound, suono schiacciato, as if they 
were spelled in English, Jceeah, keeay^ keeye, keeo, kew; 
pronouncing both vowels with a single impulse of the 
voice, and putting the tongue rather flat under the roof 
of the mouth. 



chiaro clear 

chiedo ...I ask 

chiodo nail 

chiudo I shut 

chiudere to shut 



di chiaro I declare 

richiedo / request 

occhj eyes 

inchiodo / nail 

rinchiudo ....I shut again 



OF PRONUNCIATION. 



Q 



Ce 9 ci, cia, tie, cio, cm, preceded by an s 3 are sounded 
in the following manner : — 

See, like she, in the word she-riff'. 



scena scene 

scemo silly 

discern ere to discern 



disceYne he discerns 

nasce he is born 

pasce ........he feeds 



Sci, like shi, in the word shiver. 

discifra he deciphers 

nasci thou art born 

pasci .. thoufeedest 



scimia ape 

scilla ....squill 

discifrare ...... ..to decipher 

Scia, like sha, in the word sharp 



sciabla sabre 

sciamo swarm 

fasciare to bind 



lasciare to leave 

poscia afterwards 

striscia streak 



Scie is sounded rather like shea, in the word shear ; 
pronouncing, however, the two vowels ie with a single 
impulse of the voice, and putting the emphasis on the 
vowel e. 



scienza science 

scienziato learned 



prescienza . 
eoscienza , 



..prescience 
..conscience 



Scie, at the end of words, is changed into see, d&fasce, 
bindings, instead of fdscie ; unless it is pronounced in 
two syllables. See nouns in a. 

Scio is sounded like sho, in the word shop. 

sciocco .foolish disci oglio ....I loosen 

scioglio I loosen croscio crushing 

disciolto loosened scoscio steep place 

Sciu is sounded like shoo, in the word shoot. 



sciupato wasted 

sciugato wiped 



asciugare to dry 

rasciutto.. ... ..dried i* 



Ca, che, chi, co, cu, cl, cr, chia, chie, chj, chio, chia, 
preceded by the letter s, retain the same sound as we 
said above. 



scala ladder 

scherma .fencing 

schifo dirty 

scopo scope 

scudo shield 

sclamare to exclaim 



b3 



scrlgno........ chest 

schiavo slave 

schiena back 

rischj risks 

schioppo gun 

schiuma froth 



10 



OF PRONUNCIATION. 



D. 

D is sounded by striking the tongue behind the upper 
teeth — not as the English do, who strike it against that 
part of the palate which comes in contact with the 
teeth. 

This letter keeps one unvaried sound, at the beginning, 
middle, and end of words. 



dopo after 

dove where 

cadere to fall 



vedere to see 

ad to 

ed ..and 



E. 

E has two sounds, one open {apertd), like the first e 
of the word ever, as we said in the alphabet, and another 
close (chiusd), like the a of the word cake. 



CLOSE. 



erba herb 

eVmo solitary 

esca he goes out 



degno 

legno.. 

segno.. 



.worthy 

.wood 

.mark 



Some general rides respecting the sounds of e. 

1. E is generally sounded open in the beginning of 
words. 



^mulo rival 

erran te wandering 

ebriaco drunk 



eclissi eclipse 

editto ........edict 

edu care to bring up 



We say generally, because it is in the majority of 
words that e is sounded open ; but there is also a great » 
number in which this letter is sounded close: such as 
egli, he ; essa, she ; esca, food, &c. 

2. E is sounded open in all the words in which e is 
preceded by i. 



altiero proud 

pieno .full 

quiete rest 



siedo I sit down 

spiego / explain 

viene „he comes 



OF PRONUNCIATION. 



11 



3. E is sounded open in words ending in e accented, 
which are not derivatives of verbs. 



aloe ..aloe 

Giosue Joshua 

Moise Moses 



canape sofa 

ohime alas! 

ohise alas I 



4. E is sounded open in the beginning of the termina- 
tions of the first and third persons singular of the second 
imperfect of verbs ending in ere, which are etti 9 ette, 
ettero; and also of the same persons, and that of the 
participles of irregular verbs ending in eggere and edere,^ 
which are essi, esse, essero, etto, esso. 

corr-etto corrected 

1-etto read 

r-etto ruled 



conc-esso ....granted 
proc-esso . . . .proceeded 
succ-esso succeeded 



cred etti I believed 

tem-ette he feared 

god- ettero ....they enjoyed 

1-essi I read 

r*esse he ruled 

cor r-e'ssero.... they corrected 

5. E is sounded close in the beginning of all the 
terminations of the conditionals, which are erei, eresti, 
erebbe, eremmo, ereste, erebbero. 

am-erei I should love 

port-eresti thou shouldst bring 

parl-erebbe he should speak 

cred-eremmo we should believe 

vend-ereste you should sell 

tem-erebbero they should fear 

6. E is sounded close at the end of all words. 

dolce ...sweet 

dolore pain 

ponte bridge 



rende he renders 

stende he stretches 

cuore heart 



7. E is sounded close in the beginning of all the ter- 
minations of the imperfect, second imperfect, future, 
and imperfect of the subjunctive, of verbs ending in ere. 



av-eva I had 

cred-evi thou believedst 

ved-eva he saw 

ten-evamo ....we held 
tem-evate ....you feared 
ved-evano ....they saw 
pot-& I could 



cred-ero / shall believe 

batt-erai thou shalt beat 

go d-era he will enjoy 

rend-eremo ..we shall restore 
vend-erete .. ..you will sell 
ced-eranno . . they shall yield 
av-essi / might have 



12 



OF PRONUNCIATION. 



frem-esti .... ..thou didst fret 

tem-e he feared 

rend-emmo ..ice rendered 
vend-este ....you sold 
tess-erono ....they wove 



batt-essi thou mightst beat 

dic-e sse he might say 

ced-essimo we might yield 

splend-este....^0M might shine 
vend-essero ..they might sell 



It is to be observed, that in verbs ending in are, whose 
terminations in the future and imperfect of the subjunc- 
tive begin v/ith e 9 e is sounded close, as in the verbs in 
ere. 

am-ero I shall love 

port-erai thou shall bring 

perdon-era he shall forgive 

d-essimo we might give 

fac-este you might make 

st-essero they might stand. 

8. Both e's, in the termination ere of verbs, are sounded 
close. 



tern- ere to fear 

ved-ere to see 

legg-ere to read 



prend-ere ....to take 

cred-ere to believe 

conced-ere.. ..to grant. 



These are all the rules concerning the different sounds 
of e 9 which comprise the greatest part of the words 
having e ; and with regard to other words, we can assure 
the student, that the difficulty with which the sound of 
e is attended is not so great as it is represented by some 
grammarians ; for if no ambiguity occur in sounding e 
open or close, it is, if we may say so, of no great conse- 
quence. I say, if no ambiguity occur ; because there is 
a great number of words whose signification is known 
by the sound of this letter 
them. 



The following is a list of 



E, SOUNDED OPEN. 

accetta he accepts 

affetta he affects 

ammezza he cuts in two 

bei ( 1 ) handsome 

berla ...a sort of herb 

cappello hat 



E, SOUNDED CLOSE 

accetta axe 

affetta he cuts in slices 

ammezza it ripens 

bei thou drinkest 

berla to drink it 

capello hair 



(l) Bei for belli. 



OF PRONUNCIATION. 



13 



E, SOUNDED OPEN. 

cera mien 

cetera $c. 

ch'e(l) that is 

colletto collected 

Creta Isle of Candia 

de' (2) he owes \ 

deh! alas! 

dea.. , ..goddess 

dei gods 

dessi(5) one ought 1 

dessi I might give > 

desse he might give 3 

desti thou gave st 

deste you gave 

detti I gave 

detle he gave 

e is } 

e and> 

eh eh'S 

egli (9) it is to him 

elle ( 10) ., .. ..it is to her ) 

elle the letter I \ 

esca let him go out 

esse..... the letter s 

essi (u) one is 

Este a family name 

fella/. .felon 

fello m .felon 

felle f p .felons 

felli m. p felons 

fero (17J ......fierce 

feste .fasts 

Pe it is so 

1 ega three m iles 

legge „ he reads 

lessi I read 



E, SOUNDED CLOSE. 

cera wax 

cetera guitar 

che who, which 

colletto ...... hillock 

creta clay 

de'(3) of the 

dea (4) he may give 

dei of the 

desse } the y themselves 

desti (6), m. ..awaken 
deste ( 7 ) /. . . . awaken 

detti, wz «5ot;^ s<zzYZ 

dette,/. a&cwe 1 sai^/ 

e' (8) he, they 

egli he 

elle they,?. 

esca ./boc? 

esse they, f. 

essi they, m. 

este (12) ....these 

fella (13) ^tf ftzacfe it 

fello (14) ^e made it 

felle ( 1 5 1 . . ,v . . he made them 

felli (16) he made them 

fero (17) they made 

feste (18) .. ..you made 

le the, or £0 her 

lega he ties 

legge /aw 

lessi, wz boiled 



(1) C%'e for c^e e. (2) IV for efew?. (3) 2V for efei. 

(4) I)ea for cfoz. (5) Xtessz for si deve. (6) Desti for desiati, 

a participle plural from destare. (7) JDesfe for destate. (8) JE J 
for ei. (9) Egli for g/i £, used in poetry. (10) Elle for le e, 

used in poetry. (14) Essi, used in poetry for si e. (12) 2&fe, 
used in poetry for queste. (13) Fella for lafece. (14) _FW/o 

for lofece. (15) jFWe for lefece. (16) -Fe//i for /i^k*?. 

(17) JFero, used in poetry for fero. (17) -Fero, used in poetry for 
fecero. (18) Feste for faceste. 



u 



OF PRONUNCIATION. 



E, SOUNDED OFEN. 

lesse he read 

me' (l) better 

m6\e honey 

Menalo a mountain 

me'nola a fish 

m'esce it comes out 

rnesse.. .. harvest 

mezzo half 

pera, (2) let him perish 

pere, (3) he perishes 

pesca peach 

pesco peach tree 

peste plague 

se'(4) thou art 

' s£te, (5) you are 

s telle, ( 6 ) it stood to her 

stesso I unweave 

stessa unweave thou 

stessi thou unweavest 

stesse he unweaves 

te', (7) hold thou \ 

te.. tea 5 

telo, (8) dart 

teli, (8) darts 

tema theme 

veggia hogshead 

veglia, (9) old woman 

veglio, (9) ....old man 

veile he plucks 

vello .fleece 

velli .fleeces 

ve*na pipe or reed 

vene pipes 

venti winds 

vergola bark 



E, SOUNDED CLOSE. 

lesse,/. boiled 

me me '. 

mele apples 

m enalo take him 

menola I take her 

mesce he pours out 

messe masses 

mezzo very ripe 

pera pear 

pere pears 

pesca .fishery 

pesco I fish 

peste,/. pi.... .pounded 
^se* if the 

se if 

[ se himself 

sete thirst 

stelle stars 

stesso himself 

stessa herself 

stessi, m. pi.... themselves, or thou 
mightst stand 

stesse,/. pi. . . . themselves, or he 
might stand 

te thee 

telo it to thee 

teli them to thee 

tema .fear 

veggia ..he may see 

veglia he watches 

veglio I watch 

velle (10) ....see them 

vello (11) ....see it, or I pluck 

velli (12) see them, or thou 

pluckest 

vena vein 

vene veins 

venti ........ ..twenty 

vergola (15) ..rod 



(1) Me\ used in poetry for meglio. (2) Pera for perisca. 

(5) Pere for perisce. (4) &?' for ^z. (5) &?fe for siete. 

(6) £fe//<? for le stette. (7j TV for tienl (8) 7V/o and te/i, 
words used in poetry. (9) Veglio and veglia, used in poetry for 
vecchio and vecchia. (10) Fe/fe for vedile. (11) Fe//o for vedilo. 
(12) Fe//i for vftft/i. (15) Vergola, used in poetry for wrga. 



OF PRONUNCIATION. 



15 



F is sounded exactly as in English, and keeps one 
unvaried sound at the beginning or the middle of 
words. 



fame hunger 

fallo .fault 

foglio leaf 



difetto defect 

conform e .... congenial 
riforma ......reform 



G. 

G has two sounds^ one hard (rotondo), and the other 
soft (chiaro, sonante). 

When it is followed by a> o, a, r, it is sounded hard ? 
as in English. 



gala gala 

gola throat 

gufo owl 

paga .....he pays 



prego I pray 

guglia obelisk 

grazia ...grace 



grave. 



.grave 



When g is followed by £, i, or ia, j, io, iu, thus, ge 9 
gi> gia, gj, gio, giu, it is sounded soft. 

Ge is sounded like ge 9 in the word gender. 



gelos o .jealous 

gelato .frozen 

congelare ...Jo congeal 



digerire to digest 

frange he breaks 

Gange Ganges 



Gi is sounded like gi, in the word gingle. 



gira he turns 

gire to go 

rigiro subterfuge 



presagire toforetel 

astrologi astrologers 

raggi rays 



Gia is sounded like ja 9 in the word Jar. 

giacinto hyacinth 

giaco coat of mail 

giacere ........to lie down 

Gj is sounded as if it were spelled with two &% 



giace he lies down 

spiaggia shore 

saggia wise woman 



palagj palaces 

naufragj shipwrecks 



el ogj . . eulogies 

disagj fatigues 



16 



OF PRONUNCIATION. 



Gio is sounded like Jo, in the word John. 



Giove Jupiter 

gioja .joy 

gioire to enjoy 



magione nolle house 

contagione ..contagion 
cacciagione ..game 



Gio sometimes makes two syllables at the end of words, 
thus, naiifragi-o, shipwreck. 

Giu is sounded like jV, in the word Judas. 

Giuda Judas 

Giudeo Jew 

digiuno .......... fast 



disgiunto disjoined 

laggift there below 

quaggift here below 



Ghe is sounded like ge, in the word get. 



ghembo crooked 

gheppo ....bird of prey 

vagheggia he admires 



agghermigliare to hold 

vaghe charming 

streghe witches 



Ghi is sounded like gi, in the word give. 



ghigno smile 

ghiro dormouse 

inghirlandare to surround 



aghi needles 

laghi lakes 

luoghi places 



Ghi is also followed by a, e, o, thus, ghia, ghie,ghio i 
which are sounded as if they were spelled geeah, geeay, 
geeio, pronouncing the g hard, as in give, and the two 
vowels with a single impulse of the voice. 

ghiotto glutton 



ghiaja.....» gravel 

ghiado sword 

ghiera quiver 

ghierabaldana .Joy 

ghiotta dripping pan 



agghiacciare. . to freeze 
agghiadare. . . . to benumb 
av vinghia ....he encompasses 
ringhia he frowns 



Gl has two sounds, one hard, and the other soft. It 
is sounded hard as in English, when the English words 
have gl, as the Italian. 



glebe glebe 

globo globe 

gloria , glory 



Ingle'se English 

negletto neglected 

negligente .... negligent 



In these words gl is seen both in Italian and English, 
consequently it is to be pronounced hard, as in English ; 
but when the English words are differently spelled from 
the Italian, gl is sounded somewhat like the U's in the 



OF PRONUNCIATION. 



17 



English word billiards, or rather like the /Z's in the French 
word fille, or like the ZZ's in the Spanish word llorar. 

It is to be observed, that gl can be pronounced soft 
only before i, or ia, ie, io, iuo : thus, gli, glia, glie, glio, 
gliuo. 



f igli children 

tf gli linden trees 

pigliare to take 

tagliare to cut 

paglia straw 

figlia girl 

t6gliere to take 

cogliere to gather 

foglie ., leaves 



megliorare.. ..to better 

taglione the talion law 

figlio child 

tagliuzzare....£o mince 
pagliuzza .. ..bit of straw 

miglio mile 

figliuolo son 

pagliuola ....spangle 
tagliuola snare 



Gn is sounded somewhat like the first n of the word 
onion, or rather like gn in the French words Espagne, 
Allemagne, or like n in the Spanish word anadir. 

gnaffe truly 

gnocco dunce 

degno worthy 



legno wood 

degnare to deign 

signore sir 



Of the sounds of gl and gn, the English language, 
strictly speaking, is destitute ; and on that account we 
compared them with French and Spanish terms : but if 
a student be not acquainted with those languages, he 
may produce such sounds as those of gl and gn, by 
opening the mouth, as if he were to pronounce e, with- 
out, however, sounding it, and placing the tongue flat 
under the roof of the mouth, in contact with the upper 
teeth ; and thus, having always in view the Z/'s of billiards, 
and the first n of onions, he will sound them as in 
Italian. 

Gua, gue, gui, guo, are sounded in one syllable, 
sliding, as it were, on the letter u, and putting the 
emphasis on the following vowel, exactly as the English 
do in pronouncing gui, in the words extinguish and 
distinguish. 



guida guide 

guai woes 

distingue „+.he distinguishes 



estinguere.. .. to put out 

seguire to follow 

adeguare ....to equal 



18 OF PRONUNCIATION. 

From this rule are excepted 

contigu-o . . * . contiguous 

ambigu-o ambiguous 

argu-ire to argue 

and all their derivatives, in which guo and gui are pro- 
nounced in two syllables, as they are marked. 



H. 

This letter has no sound in Italian, nor is there, at 
present, any word that begins with it, except ho, I have ; 
hai, thou hast ; ha, he has ; hanno, they have : and that 
is done to distinguish those words from o, signifying or ; 
ai, to the ; a, to ; and anno, a year. Some writers have 
attempted to introduce the writing of these four words 
as part of the verb averc, to have, without an h, and 
putting an accent on the first vowels, thus, o, ai, a, anno; 
but they found no imitators. H, however, is necessary 
in the Italian language, because it serves to alter the 
sounds of c and g, preceding e and i : thus, ci and gi 
are sounded soft, as we said, like chi, in the word 
chicane, and gi, in the word gin ; but if an h is put 
between c or g, and the vowels e or i, thus, che, chi, ghe, 
ghi, the sound of c and g becomes hard. When h is found 
at the end of words, which happens only with interjec- 
tions, thus, ah ! eh ! ih ! oh ! uh ! deh ! &c, it is not to 
be pronounced ; but it serves to indicate, that the sound 
of the preceding vowel is to be pronounced longer than 
if it were spelled without an h. 



This vowel is pronounced like i in the word ignorant. 
Its sound is unvaried at the beginning, the middle, and 
the end of words ; except when it is marked with a 



OF PRONUNCIATION. 



19 



grave accent, which happens only at the end of words, 
and then it is sounded with a stronger emphasis. 

baci 



jra ire 

irato angry 

diamo we give 

mira aim 



denti teeth 

di day 

lunedi Monday 



J. 

The sound of this letter is the same as that of i ; but 
when it makes a syllable with the following vowel, it is 
sounded like y 9 in the English words yet, you. 

jena hyena 

jeri yesterday 

jernotte last night 



ajo ... 

Cajo . 
ajuto. 



. tutor 
. Caius 
.help 



This is the most approved method of writing these 
words, and those who write iena, ieri, &c. are not to be 
imitated ; for if they were spelled with an i instead of j 9 
the pronunciation would be different, as i cannot be 
joined with another vowel, unless like a diphthong, 
when it should be pronounced separately from the other 
vowel, but with a single impulse of the voice. See 
Diphthongs.—-^' also serves to express two i's. See 
Orthography. 



L. 

L is sounded as in English, in the beginning, the 
middle, and the end of words. 

loro them 

legno wood 

ealore heat 



palo ....... 

col with the 

nel in the 



M. 

M is sounded as in English. 

mano hand 

meno less 

Romano Roman 



comune common 

baciam let us hiss 

andiam let us go 



20 Or PRONUNCIATION. 

M, however, is sounded like n, when it ends a word 
to which ne is joined. 

andiamne) n ^ nMmna ( andianne 
baciamne* P ron <™ ^ bacianne 

For further observations on this letter, see Ortho- 
graphy. 

N. 

N is generally sounded as in English, and keeps one 
unvaried sound at the beginning, the middle, and the 
end of words. 



nome name 

nota note 

dinota he denotes 



anima soul 

con . with 

non not 



When n, however, ends a word, and the following 
word begins with a labial, or, rather to say, with a letter 
that is pronounced with the lips, such as b, m, p, that n 
takes the sound of m. 

un bambino^! Turn bambino „„ababy 

non posso > pronounce < nom posso I cannot 

non meno J l^nom meno not less 

It is to be observed, that in this case m is not to be 
sounded with its full sound, but it must be blended with 
the following 5, m, p, so as to make almost one sound 
with them. N, in short, ending a word, and preceding 
another word beginning with a consonant, is never to be 
sounded full, as when it precedes a word beginning with 
a vowel : therefore, the student is not to pronounce 
conn questo, for con questo, with this ; nonn dico, for non 
dico, I don't say ; but he is to sound it as it were half n, 
if we may use such an expression. This is, perhaps, 
the reason that con, with, and non, not, preceding the 
articles il, lo, la, li, le, are sometimes made to coalesce with 
them, making col, collo, colla, colli, colle, signifying with 
the ; and not, nollo, nolla, &c, signifying not it or them. 



OF PRONUNCIATION. 



21 



o. 

O, like £, has likewise two sounds ; one open {aperlo) y 
like o, in the word orange^ as we said in the alphabet, 
and the other close (chiuso), like o, in the word bone. 



OPEN. 

6ra .pray thou 

volto turned 

torre to take away 

rosa rose 



CLOSE. 

ora now 

volto .face 

torre tower 

rosa gnawed 



Some general rules respecting the sound of o. 

1. O is sounded open, in all words that are derived 
from Latin, of which au is changed into o. 

LATIN. ITALIAN. ENGLISH. 

«wrum.. oro gold 

audio odo I hear 

ttwdeo oso / dare 

prtwllulum poco little 

tawrus toro bull 

thesaurus tesoro treasure 

2. 6, accented, is sounded open at the end of words, 
which generally happens in the third person of the 
second imperfect of verbs belonging to the first conjuga- 
tion, and likewise the first person of the future of all 
verbs in general. 



SECOND IMPERFECT. 

amo he loved 

portd he brought 

perdono he forgave 

regnd he reigned 

visitd he visited 

or dino he ordered 



FUTURE. 

amero I shall love 

credero / shall believe 

leggero / shall read 

vivro / shall live 

torro / shall take 

corro 2" shall gather 



3. () is sounded open, in all words in which it is pre- 
ceded by u, with which it forms a diphthong. 

buona good cuoca cook 

cuore heart giuoca he plays 

suona he plays puote he can 



2S OF PRONUNCIATION. 

4. Another rule may be added to these, which is, to 
sound o open in the middle of words in which it has the 
acute accent, or rather to say, on which the voice rests 
more than on any other letter. 



popolo people 

monaco monk 

possono they can 

cogliono .they gather 



godono they enjoy 

an cor a ..„....yet 

tesoro treasure 

mordono they bite 



In these words, the voice rests upon the o's, which are 
marked with the acute accent ; consequently, they are to 
be sounded open, and the others close : but this rule is 
attended with many exceptions. 

5. O is sounded close in all words that are derived 
from Latin, the u of which is changed into o. 

LATIN. ITALIAN. ENGLISH. 

vulgus volgo rabble 

multus molto ..much 

super sopra ,. k vpon 

cursus corso course 

vultus.... volto .face 

dulcis dolce sweet 

6. O is sounded close, at the end of all words, when it 
is not marked with an accent; for in that case, it is 
sounded open, as we said in the second rule. 



amo I love 

porto I bring 

perdono I forgive 

regno / reign 

visito .....I visit 

ordino / order 



mano hand 

sano wholesome 

santo holy 

canto canto 

pero pear 

dardo dart 



7. O is sounded close, in all words ending in one and 
ore, when it is not preceded by u. 

Antigone ....Antigone [ am ore love 

Tesifone Tisiphone dolore grief 

Amazzone.. ..Amazon | pudore modesty 

8. O is sounded close in all terminations of the third 
person plural of the present tense of verbs, whose infini- 



OF PRONUNCIATION. 



23 



tives end in ere and ire ; and the third person of the 
conditional, ending in erebbono, of all verbs. 

PRESENT TENSE, THIRD PERSON PLURAL. 



c re don o they believe 

se'ntono they hear 

temono they fear 

vedono they see 

prendono ... .they lose 



vogliono they will 

tengono they hold 

ridono they laugh 

godono they enjoy 

dormono.,.,..^y sleep 



CONDITIONAL, THIRD PERSON PLURAL. 

eglino amerel)bono they should love 

eglino crederebbono they should believe 

eglino sentirebbono ....,....♦ ..they should hear 

We cannot give any more rules respecting the sound 
of o, on account of their being attended with exceptions; 
but if the learner pays attention to those we have laid 
down, the greatest part of the difficulty respecting this 
letter, will be removed. There is, however, a number 
of words, which, though spelled alike, have a double or 
triple signification, according to the sound which is given 
to o, and these we will subjoin for the use of the 
student. 



0, SOUNDED OPEN. 

accorre he welcomes 

accorsi ( 1 ) . . . . / perceived 

accorse he perceived 

accorsero .... they perceived 

accorto cautious 

alloro laurel 

apporti thou bringest 

arroto I sharpen 

botte strokes, or toads 

co' (3) gather thou 

cogli thou gather est 



0, SOUNDED CLOSE. 

accorre he runs to 

accorsi I ran to 

accorse he ran to 

accorsero ....they ran to 

accorto I shorten 

alloro (2) to them 

apporti thou guessest 

arroto, m added 

botte ....butt 

co', m.p with the 

cogli, m.p with the 



(1) Accorsi, accorse, accorsero, being derivatives of accorgersi, 
a reflective verb — require the particles mi, si, before them ; thus 
mi accorsi, si accorse, si accorsero. (2) Alloro for a loro. (J) Co* 
used in poetry, instead of cogli. 



24 



OF PRONUNCIATION. 



0, SOUNDED OPEN 1 . 

cola ( 1 ) he worships 

colla glue 

colle hill 

colli hills 

collo neck 

coloro those 

col to gathered 

coppa cup 

corre to gather 

Corso a Corsican 

Corsi Corsicans 

corti to gather for thee 

costa .....rib or hill 

costo name of a plant 

dogl io / grieve 

folia (2) / make it 

folle (3) I make them, or 

a madman 

fora (4) he should be 

fosse ..ditches 

gomito an officer of a 

ship, who pre- 

sides over the 

rowers 

Gotta a female Goth 

Gotto a Goth 

importi thou meanest 

incolto overtaken 

indotto ignorant 

l'ho I have it 

loro gold 

loto herb 

morse he bit 

noce(5) he hurts 

ora (6) air, or he prays 

orno wild ash 

poppa breast 

porci pigs 

porsi I o] 



O, SOUNDED CLOSE. 

cola it flows 

coll a, /. s with the 

colle, fp. .... with the 

colli, m.p with the 

collo, m.s with the 

coloro I colour 

col to cultivated 

coppa the hind part of 

the head 

corre he runs 

corso run, or course 

corsi / ran, or courses 

corti courts 

costa,... it costs 

costo expense 

doglio .jar 

folia ...crowd 

folle crowds 

fora he robs 

fosse .he might be 

gomito elbow 

gotta gout 

gotto glass 

importi, to impose upon 

thee 

incolto ,. uncidtivated 

indotto induced 

lo the 

loro them 

loto mud 

morse pincers 

noce nut tree 

ora hour, now 

orno I adorn 

poppa the stern of a ship 

porci to put us 

porsi to put one^s-self. 



(l) Cola, used in poetry, instead of adora. (2) Folia, for la fo. 
(5) Folle for lefo. (4) Fora, used in poetry, instead of sarebbe. 
(5) Noce for nuoce. (6) Ora, used in poetry, instead of aura. 



OF PRONUNCIATION. 



25 



0, SOUNDED OPEN. 

pose pauses 

ricorre to gather 

riporti thou bringest 

again 
ritorne (1).... to take from it 

again 

rocca castle 

Rodano the river Rhoda- 

nus 

Rodi Rhodes, Island 

rogo .funeral pile 

rosa rose 

roso ... plant 

rozza .jade 

scola (3) school 

scopo scope 

scorsi I perceived 

scorta a guide 

scorto guided 

sole (4) he is wont 

soli (5) thou art wont 

solla(6) I know it 

sollo (7) I know it 

sola great boat 

solo (8) ground, soil 

Somma a mountain near 

Naples 
sono,or son{9)sound, or I play 
sonne(lO)...,! know of it 

sorta a kind 

sorte destiny 

sorti kinds 

stolto diverted 

stoppa he stops with tow 

tocca silk band 

tomo volume 

tomi volumes 



0, SOUNDED CLOSE. 

pose heput 

ricorre he has recourse 

riporti to put thyself 

again 
ritorne (2) .. ..thou returnest 

rocca distaff 

rodano let them gnaw 

rodi thougnawest 

rogo a bramble 

rosa, /. gnawed 

roso, m gnawed 

rozza,/. rough 

scola it drains 

scopo I sweep 

scorsi I wandered 

scorta he shortens 

scorto I shorten 

sole sun 

soli, m.p alone 

solla,/. soft 

sollo, m soft 

sola,/. alone 

solo, m alone 

somma sum 

sono, or son ..7 am, or they are 

sonne (11)..../ am of it, or 

there are some 

sorta,/. s risen 

sorte,/. p risen 

sorti, m.p risen 

stolto .foolish 

stoppa .tow 

tocca ,. ..he touches 

tomo .....a fall 

tomi .falls 



(1) Ritorne for rii or gliene. (2) Ritorne for tu ritorni. (3) Scola 
for scuola, (4) Sole used in poetry for suole. (5) Soli used in 
poetry for suSli. (6) Sollafov la so. (7) Sollo for lo so. (8) Solo 
for suolo. (9) Sono for suono, or io suono. (10) Sonne for ne so* 
(11) Sonne for ne sono. 

C 



26 



OF PRONUNCIATION. 



0, SOUNDED OPEN. 

torme ( l) .. ..to take from me 

tome (2) to take from us 

torre (4) to take away 

torsi / twisted 

t6rta,y. crooked 

torvi to take from you 

tosco .poison 

trotta he trots 

volgo I turn 

voto .....empty 



0, SOUNDED CLOSE. 

torme crowds 

torne(3) thou returnest 

torre tower 

torsi stumps of a cab' 

bage 

torta tart 

torvi cruel men 

Tosco a Tuscan 

trotta trout 

volgo rabble 

voto a vow 



P is sounded as in English, and keeps one unvaried 
sound at the beginning and the middle of a word. 

pane bread capo ... 

padre .father dopo .. . 

porto.. port rapa ... 



.head 
.after 
. turnip 



Q. 

Q, though it sounds, as we said, like coo, in the 
English word cook, cannot be used in Italian, without 
the assistance of the letter u, and another vowel, thus ; 
qua, que, qui, quo, which are are always to be pronounced 
in one syllable, as the English do, in the words quack, 
quaker, queen, quoits. 



quale., 
queto.. 
questo 
quinto 
quivi .. 
quota . 



..which 

..quiet 

..this 

..fifth 

..there 
. . share 



quoziente ....quotient 
quanto how much 



alquanto some 

dunque then 

chiunque ....whoever 
quantunque ..although 

equa,/. s .just 

eque,/./? .just 

equi, m p. ....just 
equo, m. s. . 



(l) Torme, used in poetry for togliermi. (2) Tome, used in 
poetry for toglierci. (3) Tome, used in poetry for tbrni. (4) Torre, 
for togliere. 



OF PRONUNCIATION. 



27 



Q might appear to some a useless letter in the Italian 
language, and not unlike c ; but it is not so, because 
there are words, which being spelled with this letter, 
have a different signification from those spelled with c. 
Besides qu is always pronounced in one syllable with the 
following vowel, and cu is separated from it. 

Qui, pronounced in one syllable — here, 
Cu-i, pronounced in two syllables — which. 



R. 

R is not sounded as in English, as some modern 
grammarians pretend, but with a stronger emphasis; 
which is effected by striking the tip of the tongue under 
the palate, before a consonant only : but it is sounded 
rather soft before a vowel. 



BEFORE A CONSONANT. 

sarto tailor 

serto crown 

sorto I go out 

parto / depart 

ridere to laugh 

riposo ,rest 



BEFORE A VOWEL. 

rima rhyme 

risa laughter 

amore love 

dolore pain 

favore /favour 

cuore heart 



s. 



S has two sounds in Italian ; one strong (gagliardo), 
and another soft (rimesso). The strong sound is like 
that of <?, in the English words seldom^ salt ; and the soft 
is like that of s, in the words cause, please. 



STRONG SOUND. 

sale salt 

senno sense 

sole sun 

rosa gnawed 

casa house 

raso satin 

studio study 

spada sword 

spirito spirit 

resto / remain 

me sto sorrowful 



c2 



SOFT SOUND. 

guisa guise 

tesoro treasure 

usura usuiy 

rosa rose 

musa muse 

usare to use 

muso snout 

posa pause 

uso use 

accusa charge 

ottuso blunt 



28 



OF PRONUNCIATION. 



It is rather difficult to lay down sure rules for knowing 
when s is sounded strong, and when soft ; however, the 
following ones, if they do not remove the difficulty, will 
at least give the student some light upon the subject in 
question. 

1. S, either in the beginning or the middle of words, 
being followed by a consonant, is sounded strong, as we 
said above, like s, in the words seldom, salt. 



sbarra bar 

Scarpa shoe 

sfogo vent 

sgabello stool 

smemorato ...dull 

snervato weakened 

sparo report 

sregolato immoderate 



stolto .foolish 

svenlre .. co .. ..to faint away 

di sperare to despair 

disvellere ...Jo pluck 
distendere ...Jo stretch 

espellere to expel 

ristaurare ...Jo restore 
ristudiare ...Jo study again 



It is to be observed, that s is sounded strong, as above, 
before c, when c is followed by a, o, u, Z, r ; but if c is 
followed by e, or i, s has another sound, quite different 
from the soft or the strong. See page 9. 

2. S, preceding a vowel, in the beginning of a word, 
is sounded strong, as we said above, and there is no need 
of more examples ; but from this rule we must except 
proper names beginning with X in Latin or English, in 
which s is sounded softer. 



Serse Xerxes 

Senocrate ....Xenocrates 



Senofane Xenophanes 

Senofonte .... Xenophon 



3. In words compounded with prepositions, or in 
words to which the particle si of impersonal or reflective 
verbs, signifying it is, it was, &c, or himself, herself 
itself, is annexed, the s of si is sounded strong. 

dis-ubbidire .Jo disobey crede si it is believed 

dis usare to disuse dice va-si it was said 

con-seguire . . to obtain vetle-si it is seen 

tras-mettere ..to transmit amar-si to love oneself 

ri-soluto resolute creder-s to believe oneself 

pre-sumere ..Jo presume sentir-si to feel 



OF PRONUNCIATION. 



29 



4. S has a soft sound between two vowels : as we said 
above, it is sounded like s, in the words cause > please. 

From this rule are excepted the following words, in 
which <?, though between two vowels, is sounded strong. 



cosi thus 

altresl also 

maisl yes 

cosa thing 

casa house 



caso chance 

raso satin 

rosa,/. gnawed 

rosi, m. p gnawed 

rose,/, p. .... gnawed 



5. In all words ending in oso, and their plurals osi, 
5, though between two vowels, is sounded strong. 

riposo rest 

peloso hairy 

virtuoso virtuous 

tortuoso winding 



suntuosi sumptuous 

spiritosi witty 

maestosi majestic 

ingegnosi .... ingenious 



To which may be added the three irregular persons of 
the second imperfect of the verb rispondere^ to answer, 
and rodere, to gnaw, and also the participle of the latter, 
in which s is sounded strong. 



risposi i* answered 

rispose he answered 

risposero .. ....they answered 



rosi I gnawed 

rose ....he gnawed 

rosero they gnawed 

rose gnawed 



6. Two s's are always sounded strong. 



cossi I baked 

posso I can 

rosso .. ; ..red 



fosso ditch 

sasso stone 

tosse cough 



T. 

This letter is not sounded as in English, as some 
grammarians affirm. The English sound it by striking 
the tongue against that part of the palate which comes in 
contact with the teeth, which produces a sound rather 
blunt; but the Italians strike the tongue behind the teeth, 
which produces a sound clearer and more distinct. 



30 OF PRONUNCIATION. 

T keeps one unvaried sound at the beginning or 
middle of words. 



tuo thine 

tosto soon 

tratto tract 



canto canto 

stato been 

avuto ...had 



Formerly, this letter was put in the middle of some 
words, derived from Latin, instead of z, and pronounced 
as such. 

gratia .for grazia grace 

letione .for lezione lesson 

oratione .for orazione oration 

At present, however, it would be a fault to spell those 
words with t. 

U. 

The sound of u is that which is heard in uttering 00, 
in the English word ooze, which sound is effected by 
projecting the lips forward, and pressing the breath in a 
moderate way without any motion of the tongue. When 
it is found at the end of words, which are not numerous 
in Italian, it is sounded like u in the word bull. 



uno. one 

unire to unite 

unione union 

cupo hollow 

busto..... bust 

gusto.... taste 



tu thou 

su upon 

virt^ virtue 

tribil tribe 

laggi & there below 

lassu upon there 



U is sounded like u in the words quaJcer, queens, 
distinguish. See the letter Q. 



This letter also, like many others to which modern 
grammarians have given the English sound, is sounded 
differently. The English indeed sound it by putting 
the under lip in contact with the upper teeth, as the 



OF PRONUNCIATION. 



31 



Italians do ; but in forcing the breath, the former do it 
in such a manner as to produce a sound resembling that 
of/"; and the latter touch the lips with the teeth so 
lightly, that not the least sound of f is heard. 

V is always followed by a vowel, with which it makes 
one single sound, thus, va, ve> vi, vo, vu, whether in 
the beginning or middle of words, which are sounded 
exactly as they are by the English in the word valour, 
vein* village, void, vulture, always taking care not to 
sound v likej^ 



vano vain 

vedo I see 

vino mine 

volo -flight 

vulgo rabble 



mvano in vain 

rivedo I see < 

divlno divine 

rivolo I fly again 

di v ulgo / divulge 



z. 

Some grammarians have given four sounds ta this 
letter, others three; but Buommattei, whose footsteps 
we have resolved strictly to follow in compiling this 
work, says that z 9 accurately speaking, has but two 
sounds, one strong (gagliardo), like that produced in 
uttering s, preceded by t, thus, ts ; and the other soft, 
(rimesso), like that produced in sounding ds strong. 



zampa 
zecca 

zitella 
zoppo 
zuppa J 



STRONG. 



pronounce 



tsampa paw 

tsecca mint 

-^ tsitella maid 

| tsoppo lame 

ttsuppa soup 



zanni "J 
zeffiro | 
zibibbo ^ 
zotico 
zurlo 



fdsanni buffoon 

\ dseffiro zephyr 

pronounce < dsibibbo raisin 

] dsotico rude 

Ldsurlo mirth 



These two sounds are easy to be learned, but the 
difficulty is to find what are the words in which this 



32 OF PRONUNCIATION. 

letter is to be pronounced strong, as well as those in 
which it is soft. 

The general rules on this subject are numerous, and 
these are subject to numberless exceptions; this, how- 
ever, shall not prevent us from laying some of them 
down. But as we cannot entirely remove the difficulty 
by this means, we shall subjoin a list of a great number 
of words, with the proper pronunciation of this letter, 
which we have extracted from the works of those 
authors who have written on this subject. 

1. Z then in the middle of words, followed by the 
letter i and another vowel, is sounded strong like ts. 



grazia grace 

milizia militia 

pronunzia ....pronunciation 



azione action 

meditazione ..meditation 
pretenzione ..pretension 



2. Z in the middle of words, preceded by I and r, is 
likewise sounded strong like ts. 



milza... spleen 

scorza rind 

sforzo effort 



calza stocking 

forza strength 

scherzo .joke 



From this rule are excepted gar zone *, boy, orzo, 
barley, in which z is sounded rather soft. 



3. Z, in words ending in anza, arize, anzi, enza, enze, 
inza, inze, is sounded strong like ts. 

diligenza .... diligence 

senza.. without 

prudenza ....prudence 



speranza hope 

costanza constancy 

stanze rooms 



anzi nay 

innanzi before 



grinza wrinkle 

grinze wrinkles 



4. Two afs in all words ending in ezza, and likewise 
in all diminutives ending in ozzo, ozza, uzzo, uzza, are 
sounded strong like ts. 

foresozzo ....peasant 
foresozza .... country girl 

omuzzo a mean little man 

feminuzza ....a mean little wo- 
man 



bellezza beauty 

lentezza slowness 

prestezza ....quickness 
contezza information 



OF PKONUNCJATION, 



38 



A List of Familiar Words most commonly used. 

In the following words, z is to be sounded strong 
like ts. 



zampa ....... .paw 

zampillo a water-spout 

zampogna .... bagpipe 

zana cradle 

zanata a basketful 

zanga leg 

zan co left-handed 

zanna ..tusk 

zappa spade 

zappare to dig 

zecca mint 

zebro zebra 

zecchiere ....director of the 
mint 

zecchino sequin 

zecco he-goat 

zeppa wedge 

zeppo .full 

zio uncle 



zimarra ...... morning gown 

zimbello bird-call 

zingaro gipsy 

zinna... breast 

zitella maid 

zitto hush 

zoccolo wooden shoe 

zolfo sulphur 

zolla clod 

zombare to beat 

zoppo lame 

zucca pumpkin 

zucchero sugar 

zuccolo the crown of the 

head 

zufolo .flageolet 

zuffa a ff ra y 

zugo .juice 

zuppa soup 



In the following words, z is sounded like ds. 



zacchera .trifle 

zaftar e to stop up 

zafferano .... saffron 

zaffetica asafcetida 

zafFiro sapphire 

zaffo ...., bung 

zagaglia .javelin 

zaino wallet 

zambra wardrobe 

zanni .'.buffoon 

zanzara gnat 

zara risk 

zatta ,melon 

zattera raft 

zavorra ballast 

zazzera head of hair 

zeffiro zephyr 

zelamina calamine 

zelo zeal 

zendado silk stuff 



zenzero ginger 

zenzara gnat 

zenzovero ....ginger 

zerbino dandy 

ze'zzolo teat 

zero zero 

zibaldone ....a mixture of 

writings 

zibellino zibelline 

zibibbo ....... raisin 

zirlo the whistling of a 

thrush 
zizzania ... ...choke-weed 

zodiaco zodiac 

zona zone 

zotico rude 

zurlo mirth 

zurlare to play 

zurro .joke 



c3 



34 



OF VROKUNCTATIOK. 



In the following words, the two s's are sounded strong 
ike ts. 



abbozzare ...Jo sketch 

abbozzo sketch 

abbuzzago .. ..buzzard 
accarezzare ..to caress 
accozzare ....to heap up 

adizzare to exasperate 

affazzonare ..to adorn 

aguzzare to sharpen 

aguzzo sharp 

aizzare to excite 

ammazzare ..to kill 
apprezzare ..to value 

arazzo * . . tapestry 

attizzare .to stir the fire 

attrezzo tool 

avvezzare ....to accustom 

av vezzo accustomed 

azzannare ....to snap 
azzuffare . . * . to fight 
bacherozzo ...a little silk-worm 

baciozzo hearty kiss 

biscazza a gambling-house 

bozzolo ...... the pod of a silk- 
worm 

cagnazzo nasty dog 

carrozza coach 

capezzale ....bolster 

cavezza ..... ..halter 

cocuzzolo ....summit 

corazza cuirass 

cozzare to butt 

cozzo butting 

dassezzo at last 

diguazzare ....to shake 

disprezzo .... contempt 

disprezzarc.^o despise 
dirizzare.. ....to make straight 

fazzoletto .... handkerchief 

frizzo an itching 

gavazzare ....to dance for joy 

gazza magpie 

ghiozzo drop 

gozzo , . . bird's crop 

guazzetto ....ragout 



guazzo ..ford 

guazzare ......to beat any thing 

liquid in a vessel 

guizzo decrepid 

irabarazzo .... embarrassment 
impazzare ....to become mad 

indirizzo direction 

ingalluzzare . . to swell with pride 
ingozzare ....to swallow 
intirizzire ....to grow stiff 

lazzo sour 

lezzo stench 

lizza career 

mazza ».. stick 

mazzo a bunch, a pack 

merluzzo cod 

mezzo ripe 

mozzo cutoff 

nozze wedding 

palazzo .palace 

paonazzo purple 

pazzo • mad 

pezzo a bit, a piece 

piazza square 

pizzicore itching 

pozzetta dimple 

pozzo a well 

prezzo .price 

prezzolare ....to haggle 

puzzo stench 

ragazza girl 

razza race 

rintuzzare ....to resist 

ruzzola truckle 

scozzonare ..to break in a 

horse 

sgozzare to cut one's throat 

singhiozzare..£o sob 
singhiozzo ....hiccough 
sollazzare ....to recreate 

sollazzo recreation 

sminuzzare ..to mince 

sozzo dirty 

spazzare .to sweep 



OF PRONUNCIATION. 



spazzuola ....brush 
schiamazzo ..noise 
sergozzone ..modillon 

sezzajo last 

sezzo last 

schizzo sketch 

sorgozzone ..prop 

spezzare to cut in pieces 

spruzzo sprinkling 

stizza wrath 

strapazzare ..to ill-use 
strapazzo ....contempt 
stravizzare....fo make merry 



stravizzo . . . .feast 

strozzare to strangle 

strozzo throat 

struz zo ostrich 

stuzzicare ....to pick 

tazza cup 

terrazza terrace 

tizzone .firebrand 

tozzo a bit 

vezzeggiare ..to caress 

vezzo charm 

vizzo withered 

zazzera head of hair 



In the following words, the two z's are sounded soft 
like ds. 

lazzo drollery 

magazzino.. ..magazine 
martirizzare..2o martyr 

mezzano middle 

mezzo means 

moralizzare ..to moralise 

mozzo bit 

notomizzarcfo anatomise 
organizzare ..to organise 
orizzonte ....horizon 
particolariz- to give a particu* 

zare lar account of 

polizza bitt 

polverizzare ..to pulverise 
profetizzare . . to foretell 

razza thornback 

razzo squib 

rezzo shady place 

ribrezzo .fear 

rozza .jade 

rozzo ..rude 

ruzzare to play 

sbizzarrire....fo grow complai- 
sant 
scandalizzare to scandalise 
sollennizzare to solemnise 
tesaurizzare .. to hoar dup money 
tramezzare ..to put between 

zizzania choke-weed 

Gazza ........ Gaza (city) 



addirizzatqjo 


he who straightens 


agonizzare... 


.to agonise 


amraezzamen 


-the act of cutting 


to 


in the middle 


ammozzarsi . 


.to grow hard 


ammozzicare 


to cut in pieces 


ammezzare . 


.to cut in two 


Amazzone... 


.Amazon 


analizzare ... 


.to analyse 


autorizzare . 


. authorise 


azzimo 


.unleavened 


azzurro 


.azure 


battezzare .. 


. to baptise 


bizzarria 


. whim 


bizzarro .... 


.odd 


bizzoco .... 


.bigot 


canonizzare 


.to canonise 


caratterizzare characterise 


catechizzare 


..catechise 


dimezzare .. 


.to part by the 




middle 


dirozzare .. 


..to polish 


dozzina .... 


..dozen 


dozzinale .. 


..vulgar 


esorcizzare 


..to exorcise 


gargarizzare 


..to gargle 


gazzetta .... 


..gazette 


ghiozzo .... 


..gudgeon 


ghiribizzo .. 


..caprice 


latinizzare .. 


..latinise 


Lazzaro .... 


..Lazarus 



36 OF PRONUNCIATION. 

It is to be observed, that all the derivatives of the 
above words follow the nature of their primitives; 
thus, the z of zappa being sounded like ts 9 is sounded 
the same in zappare, its derivative, and likewise in all its 
tenses, such as zappo, zappi, zappa, zappiamo, zappate, 
zappanoi I dig, &c, and so on of all other tenses. And 
again, the two z*s of agonizzare are sounded like ds ; 
consequently, in all its derivatives, such as agonizzo, 
agonizzi, agonizza, agonizzidmo, agonizzate, agonizzano, 
the two #'s are pronounced ds 9 and so on of the other 
words. 



Ph, K, X, Y. 

These four characters, which belong to the Latin as 
well as to the English language, the Italians have not 
adopted, but they supply their places with other 
letters. 

Ph is changed intoy in Italian. 

LATIN. ITALIAN. ENGLISH. 

phantasraa fantasma phantom 

phasianus fagiano pheasant 

philosophia filosof ia philosophy 

K is changed into c. 

kalendae calende calends 

kalendarium calendario almanack 

X is changed into a single or double s. 

Xerxes Serse Xerxes 

Xenocrates Senocrate Xenocrates 

axioma assioma axiom 

X is sometimes changed into c, as in the following 
words. 

excedere eccedere to exceed 

excellens eccellente excellent 

excelsus eccelso noble 



OF PItONtJNClATION. 37 

X of Xante*, a river, is not changed into s, because it 
would be confounded with santo^ saint ; nor that of cer- 
tain Latin expressions used by some authors as they are 
in their original language. Such are, 

eximproviso ..*, at unawares 

exte mpore immediately 

exprofesso professedly 

Y is changed into i. 



ITALIAN. ENGLISH. 



Elysium r ....Eliso Elysium 

embryon embrio embryo 

hyperbole iperbole hyperbole 

gyrus giro circle, turn 



Observations on the Letters. 

Two vowels of the same name, viz. — two as, two es, 
two i's, &c. form a diphthong, which see page 39. 

Two consonants of the same name, viz. — two J's, two 
ef s, two t^s, &c. have the same sound as a single one ; 
but they are to be pronounced with a stronger impulse 
of the voice, and without being separated. 



abbandonare .to abandon 
addolcire . . . . to soften 

afferrare to seize 

allettare to allure 

ammainare ..to lower the sails 



annoverare ..to reckon 
appannare ....to cloud 

atterrare to knock doum 

avvelenare. ...to poison 
azzardare ...Jo risk 



With respect to the two consonants, c and ^, it is to 
be observed that, as they have two sounds, one strong and 
another soft, as we said in pages 7 and 15, being dou- 
bled, the first is sounded like the second : thus, if these 
two letters, being followed by a, o, u, Z, r, are sounded 
hard when single, being double they retain the same 
sound ; and being followed by e and z, they are sounded 
soft when single ; and when they are doubled, they 
retain the same sound. 



38 



OF PRONUNCIATION. 



Two e's before a, o, u, Z, r — Two g*s before a, o, w, I, r- 
are sounded as in English. 



accattare to beg 

accorrere to run to 

accumulare...£o heap up 
acclamare .. ..to proclaim 
accrescere ...Jo augment 



aggaffare to catch 

aggottare to pump up 

aggustare to taste 

aggradire ....to please 
aggran di re .... to increase 



Two (?s before e or i, sound- Two g's before e or i, sound- 
ed like ch in cheese, ed like g in the word gipsy. 



accettare to accept 

accendere ....to light 
accelerare . . . . tc hasten 
accingere ....to prepare 
accidia sloth 



aggettivo adjective 

aggelare to freeze 

aggirare to go about 

aggirarsi to wander 

aggirato wandered 



Of Diphthongs. 

A diphthong, dittongo, is the union of two vowels, 
pronounced with a single impulse of the voice, in such 
a manner that both vowels may be heard ; but the 
emphasis or accent is sometimes on the first, and some- 
times on the second vowel. 



ON THE FIRST. 

P-aolo Paul 

b-eo-no they drink 

d-ia-no they give 



ON THE SECOND. 

p-ia-ga wound 

t-uo-no thunder 

p-ia-no softly 



Of the Number of Diphthongs. 

Grammarians are at variance in reckoning the diph- 
thongs ; but we, to avoid discussions and trouble, will 
follow Buommattei, who says, that there are as many 
diphthongs in Italian as syllables of two vowels, and he 
lays down the following eighteen. 

ae aere air 

ai maisi yes 

ao Paolo ..Paul 

au , Aurora ..Aurora 



OF PRONUNCIATION. 39 

ea Borea north-wind 

ee; idee..** ideas 

ei reina queen 

eo Eolo Eolus 

eu Europa Europe 

ia fiato breath 

ie piede .foot 

io piove it rains 

iu schiuma .froth 

oi oime ...alas! 

ua guado ford 

ue guerito cured 

ui altrui others 

uo tuono thunder 

To these we may safely add five more, which are — 

aa Baal Baal 

ii dii gods 

oa Boadicea Boadicea 

oe Boemia Bohemia 

oo Demofoonte Demofoontc 

The union of three vowels is called trittongo, triph- 
thong, and of four vowels, quadrittongo. 
The trittongo is as in the following words. 



miei mine 

suoi his 

puoi thou canst 



vuoi thou wilt' 

tuoi thine 

cuoi leathers 



But the existence of the quadrittongo has been dis- 
puted, and the four vowels in the words figliuoi, chil- 
dren, and lacciuoi) snares, syncopated of jigliuoli and 
lacciuolis are not quadrittonghi, as the i that precedes u 
does not belong to the four vowels ; but it is inserted to 
render the sound of gl liquid, and that of c soft. 

Observation. 

1. /a, io, iw, being preceded by c or g, thus, cia, cio 9 
ciu, gia, gio, giu, ana making one syllable with it, are 
not diphthongs ; as the i that is put there serves only to 
give a soft sound to c or g, for, without i, the sound of 



40 



OF PRONUNCIATION. 



c and g would be hard. But if cia, cio, gia, gio, are 
pronounced in two syllables, ia 9 io, are diphthongs — 

Cia, cioy cm, gia, gio, giu 

MAKING ONE SYLLABLE. MAKING TWO SYLLABLES. 

audaci-a audacity 



ciacco hog 

cionco drunken 

ciullo rude 

giaco coat of mail 

giorno day 

giusto ......... just 



edifici-o edifice 

sudici-o dirty 

elegi-a elegy 

vestigi-o .footstep 

p restigi-o ...» illusion 



2. Ie, preceded by c or g, different from ia, io, iu, is 
always a diphthong, as the i is put there to be sounded, 
and not to soften the sound of c and g. Besides, if that 
i were put to soften the sound of c and g, the i of cie 
and gie would scarcely be audible ; and then the words 
of which they are a part would have a different significa- 
tion, as it is seen in the following words. 



cielo heaven 

cieco blind 

ciera mien 

gielo .frost 

gielone a kind of mush* 



celo I hide 

ceco I blind 

cera wax 

gelo I shudder 

gelone a very hard frost 



3. Ja>je,jo,ju> as well as va, ve, vi, vo, vu, are ngt 
diphthongs, according to the opinions of some gram- 
marians, as j and v are consonants. 



Of the Division of Diphthongs. 

Diphthongs are divided into two classes, namely, distesi, 
extended, and raccolti^ compressed. 

The distesi are those in which the vowels are pro- 
nounced separately, as if each vowel formed a syllable ; 
and the principal vowel on which the emphasis lies is 
the first. 



da-i .from the 

ma-i never 

vo-i you 

ml-o mine 



de-i gods 

co-i with the 

tu-o thine 

zi-o uncle 



OF PRONUNCIATION. 41 

The racccolti are those of which the first vowel is 
scarcely audible on being pronounced, and its sound is 
confused with that of the next vowel, on which lays the 
emphasis. 



fiato breath 

miele honey 

niente not king 



questo this 

guasto spoiled 

pieno .full 



Of the Genders of Letters. 

Letters in Italian have, like all other substantives, 
their genders, which are known thus : — 

The vowels &, £, and all those consonants which cannot 
be uttered without their aid, such as^/J h 9 I, m, n> r, s, z 9 
are of the feminine gender. Thus, we say, 

una bella a ajfinea, 

una e aperta an e sounded open 

una/ ben formata an {well formed 

un' h majuscola a capital h 

The vowels i, o, w, and all other consonants, are of the 
masculine gender. Thus, we say, 

un i corto a short i 

un^* lungo a long] 

un o aperto an o sounded open 

un u majuscolo a capital u 

un d minuscolo a small d 

In these examples the termination in a of the adjec- 
tives, shews that the letters with which they are accom- 
panied are of the feminine gender ; and that in o shews 
that the letters are of the masculine gender ; besides 
that, the gender may also be known by the articles ; una 
or wri! with an apostrophe serves for the feminine, and 
an for the masculine. 

Letters have no plural, and we say dice a, two a's, 
tre 6, three 6's, quattro g, four ^'s, &c. 



4$ OF PRONUNCIATION'. 

These are all the rules respecting pronunciation 
which we think necessary for a student to be acquainted 
with, and without which no learner, unprovided with a 
master, will ever be able to go on in his favourite study ; 
and with regard to the division of words, quantity, &c. 
the student will find them treated of at length in the 
fourth part of this work, the Orthography* 



END OF THE FIRST PART. 



OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 
PART II. 

OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 



CHAPTER I. 

A GENERAL VIEW OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 

The second part of grammar treats of the different 
sorts of words, their various modifications, and their 
derivation. 

There are in Italian nine sorts of words; or, as they 
are commonly called, Parts of Speech, ngmely : — 

1. Articolo Article 

2. Nome Noun 

3. Pronorae Pronoun 

4 Verbo Verb 

5. Participio Participle 

6. Awerbio Adverb 

7. Preposizione Preposition 

8. Congiunzione Conjunction 

9. Interiezione ...Interjection 

1. An article is a word prefixed to substantives, to 
point them out, and to show how far their signification 
extends ; as, the spirit, lo spirito ; the book, il libro ; the 
house, la casa. 

2. A noun is the name of any thing that exists, or of 
which we have any notion, as man, uomo ; woman, 
donna ; London, Londra. 

8. A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun, to 
avoid the too frequent repetition of the same word ; as, 
a man is happy because he is benevolent, l'uomo e felice, 
perche egli e benevolo. 



44 OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 

4. A verb is a word which signifies to be, essere, to 
do, fare, to suffer, soffrire ; as, I am, io sono ; we 
love, noi amiamo ; they are beaten, eglino sono battidi. 

5. A participle is a word so called, as it partakes of 
the nature of the verb and the adjective ; as loved, 
amato ; spoken, parlato ; believed, creduto. 

6. An adverb is a word joined to verbs and adjec- 
tives, to express some quality or circumstance respecting 
them ; as ? he reads well, egli legge bene ; he is a very 
good man, egli e un uomo molto buono, or buonissimo. 

?. Prepositions serve to connect words with one 
another, and to show the relation which exists between 
them ; as, before the house, avanti la casa ; behind the 
church, diecro della chiesa. 

8. A conjunction is a part of speech that is chiefly 
used to connect sentences, so as out of two or more sen- 
tences to make but one ; as, you and she are happy, tu 
ed ella sietefelici ; I see that you are clever, vedo che voi 
siete abile. 

9. Interjections are words thrown in between the parts 
of a sentence, to express the passions or emotions of the 
speaker ; as, alas ! who could imagine it ? alii ! chi rnai 
potea immaginarlo. 

The number of the parts of speech has been variously 
fixed by different grammarians. Some have enume- 
rated ten, others eight, and others more or less. We, 
however, have followed those authors who appear to 
have adopted the most natural and intelligible distri- 
bution. 



OF ARTICLES IN GENERAL. ^ 45 

CHAPTER II. * 

OF ARTICLES IN GENERAL. 

The Articles, in Italian, are words prefixed to sub- 
stantives, to point out their gender, genere, number, 
numero, and case, caso; and likewise to shew how 
far their signification extends. 

The genders are two, viz. the masculine, masculino, 
and the feminine, femminino. 

The numbers are two, viz. the singular, singoldre, or 
numero del me no, and the plural, plurdle, or numero del 
piu. 

The cases are six, viz. 

I. The nominative, nominativo, or caso retto, ovprimo 
caso. 

II. The genitive, genitivo, caso obliquo, secondo caso. 

III. The dative, dativo, caso obliquo, terzo caso. 

IV. The accusative, accusativo, caso obliquo, quarto 
caso. 

V. The vocative, vocativo, caso obliquo^ quinto caso. 

VI. The ablative, ablativo, caso obliquo> sesto caso. 

For the sake of young pupils, who are often at a loss 
about the meaning of the cases, we will here insert a 
brief explanation of them. 

The nominative case, which is generally distinguished 
by one of these particles, fo, i/, la, gli, i, le, is so called, 
because it declares the name of any thing, as heaven, 
cielo ; earth, terra; man, uomo ; woman,, donna; and 
likewise because it designs the person or thing which 
forms the subject of any phrase ; as, Peter teaches, Pietro 
msegna; the table is good, la tavola e buona. 

The genitive or possessive case, which is distinguished 
by one of these particles, di, dello, del, delta, degli, de\ 
delle, generally indicates the possessor or the quality of 
the substantive by which it is governed, or the subject 
of which we speak ; as, Peter's hat, it cappello di Pietro ; 



\ 

46 OF ARTICLES IN GENERAL. 

a straw hat, un cappello di paglia; I speak of what 
happened, io pdrlo di quel che e arrivdto. Di Pietro : 
Pietro is the possessor of the hat. Di paglia : paglia is 
the quality of the hat. Diquel: quel is the subject of 
which we speak. 

The dative, which is distinguished by one of these 
particles, a, alio, al, alia* agli, ai, alle, shews the per- 
son to whom we give, speaks write, fyc. ; as, to give to 
the poor, dare a? poveri ; to speak to our friends, parldre 
a! nostri amici; to go to London, anddre a Londra; to 
approach the house, avvicindrsi alia cdsa. A y poveri, a? 
nostri amici, a Londra, alia casa, are the datives after 
the verbs to give, to speak, to go, to approach. 

The accusative or objective case is the same as the 
nominative, and expresses the object acted upon ; as 
Peter likes study, Pietro ama lo studio ; Maria loves 
x virtue, Maria arna la virtu: studio, and virtu, are accu- 
satives, because they are the objects acted upon by Pietro 
and Maria. 

The vocative case serves to address or call people, 
and is generally preceded by o, and very often without 
any mark, as, Oh! my beloved heart, o amdto cuore ; 
oh ! sweet friend, o dolce amico ; Gentlemen, I tell you 
that, &c, Signori rriiei, io vi dico che, ecc. ; my chil- 
dren, be good, figli miei, sidte buoni. 

The ablative case, which is distinguished by one of 
these particles, da, dallo, dal, dalla, dagli, dai, dalle, 
marks the separation, distance, and is the case coming 
after all passive verbs; as, separated from the world, 
separdto dal mondo; far from London, lungi da Londra ; 
he is loved by her, egli e amdto da lei. 



Section I. 

There are in Italian two kinds of articles, one definite, 
the other indefinite. 

The definite article, as we said, serves to mark the 
gender, number, and case, and is expressed three ways, 



OF ARTICLES IN GENERAL. 47 

viz. lo, il, la; lo and il are prefixed to masculine nouns, 
and la to the feminine. 

Declension of lo. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

Nom. (l)lo the gli 

Gen. dello (2) of the degli 

Dat. alio toihe agli 

Ace. lo the gli 

Abl. dallo , .from, or by the dagli 

This article and all its inflections are prefixed to mas- 
culine nouns beginning with z, or with s, when s is 
followed by another consonant, which is called s impura: 
Ex. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

Nom. lo zingaro(s) ....the gipsy gli zingari 

Gen. dello zingaro of the gipsy degli zingari 

Dat alio zingaro to the gipsy agli zingari 

Ace. lo zingaro the gipsy gli zingari 

Abl. dallo zingaro.... from or by the gipsy ....dagli zingari 

Nom. lo sprone the spur gli sproni 

Gen. dello sprone of the spur degli sproni 

Dat. alio sprone to the spur agli sproni 

Ace. lo sprone the spur gli sproni 

Abl. dallo sprone .from or by the spur dagli sproni 

Zo, and its singular inflections, lose their Jast vowel 
o, and take an apostrophe, before masculine nouns be- 
ginning with a vowel; thei, however, of the plural inflec- 



(1) In declining nouns, pronouns, &c. throughout this work, we 
have omitted the vocative, as it is either expressed by o, or with no 
mark at all. 

(2) Poets have often made use of de lo, a lo, da lo, de gli, a gli, 
da gli, instead of the above : not to be imitated in prose. 

(3) Some grammarians have prefixed il to masculine nouns be- 
ginning with z in the singular, and gli in the plural ; others have 
given to these nouns the article il, and all its inflections; we, how- 
ever, agree with those who have prefixed to them lo and all its 
inflections, for il would sound rather harshly. 



43 OF ARTICLES IN GENERAL. 

tions, is not to be suppressed unless the nouns begin 
with an i. Ex. 

SINGULAR. * PLURAL. 

Norn, l'amico(l) the friend gli amici(2) 

Gen. dell'amico of the friend degli amici 

Dat. alPamico to the friend agli amici 

Ace. l'amico the friend gli amici 

Abl. dalPamico .from or by the friend .. .. dagli amici 

Nom. llnglese the Englishman (5)gPInglesi 

Gen. dell'Inglese of the Englishman degl'Inglesi 

Dat. alllnglese to the Englishman agPInglesi 

Ace. l'Inglese the Englishman gl'Inglesi 

Abl. dall'Inglese .....from or by the Englishman dagPInglesi 

Declension of il. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

Nom. il 4) the i or li 

Gen, del of the de' or dei (5) 

Dat. al tothe ..'a' or ai 

Ace. il the i or li 

Abl. dal .from or by the ...., da' or dai 

This article, and all its inflections but Zi 5 are pre- 
fixed to all masculine nouns beginning with a consonant 
which is not z or s impara. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

Nom. il padre the father i padri 

Gen. del padre of the father dei padri 

Dat. al padre to the father ai padri 

Ace. il padre the father i padri 

Abl. dal padre .from or by the father dai padri 

(1) Lo may be put before masculine nouns beginning with any 
vowel but o, as, lo amico, dello amico, &c. but not lo ordine, the 
order. Lo, before masculine nouns, beginning with a vowel, is often 
found in ancient and modern authors, but we think it is better not 
to depart from the above rules. 

(2) Beware of writing gP amici, degP amici, &c. 
(5) Never write gli Inglesi, degli Inglesi, &c. 

(4) // for lo, and lo for il, are often found in poetry, and even in 
prosaic authors of old date ; but such examples are not to be 
imitated. , 

(5) Instead of de*, dei, a\ ai % da 9 , dai, we find in poetical and 
prosaic works de i, de li, delli, ai, a li, alii, da i, da li, dalli ; but they 
are to be avoided. 



OF ARTICLES IN GENERAL. 49 

Observations. 

II may sometimes lose the u and take an apostrophe ; 
as, e 1 ! padre disse, and his father said. 

/ is generally suppressed at the end of several words, 
and an apostrophe is inserted in its place ; as, nei, ne\ 
in the; sid, su\ upon the. 

Lu though often used by ancient writers, instead of i, 
is now, and that very seldom, only used with words 
indicating the date of the month ; and also before quali. 
Metastasio says in his letters : Vienna^, li 27 giugno 1768, 
Vienna, the 27th of June, 1768. — Boca 46: Li quali 
tutti senza alcuna cosa in capo standogli^ who were 
standing before him with their heads bare ; and again, 
di due si fa menzione, li quali. ec, they mention two, 
that, &c. 

Declension of la. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

Nom. la the le 

Gen. della of the delle 

Dat. alia to the alle 

Ace. la the le 

Abl. dalla .from ox by the dalle 

This article and all its inflexions ai*e prefixed to femi- 
nine nouns beginning with a consonant, Ex. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

Nom. la madre themother le madri 

Gen. della madre. .....of themother delle madri 

Dat. alia madre to the mother alle madri 

Ace. la madre themother le madri 

Abl. dalla madre .from or by the mother . ... dalle madri 

Za, and all its singular inflections, drop their last 
vowel a, and take an apostrophe, before feminine nouns 
beginning with a vowel ; the £, however, of the plural 
inflections, is not dropped, except when the nouns begin 
with an e. Ex. 

D 



50 OF ARTICLES IN GENERAL. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

Nom. Parte the art le arti 

Gen. dell'arte of the art delle arti 

Dat. alParte to the art alle arti 

Ace. Parte the art ,.le arti 

Abl. dall'arte .from or by the art dalle arti 

Nom. Perba the herb Perbe 

Gen. delPerba of the herb delPerbe 

Dat. alPerba totheherb all'erbe 

Ace. Perba the herb Perbe 

Abl. dalP erba .from or by the herb dall'erbe 

Observation. 

Feminine nouns beginning with any vowel but a, may 
take the article la without elision, in the singular, and 
without the e in the plural ; but we think it is better to 
use I with an apostrophe in the singular, and le in the 
plural, unless the nouns begin with an e, as we have said ; 
even in that case, however, if the feminine nouns begin 
with an e, and have the same termination in the plural 
as in the singular, the article in the plural is to be le, and 
not I with an apostrophe ; as, Veta, the age, le eta ; 
Teffigie, the effigy, le effigie. For if otherwise, the 
plural would be the same as the singular, without any 
distinction. 

General Observations on the Articles lo, il, la, gli, i, le. 

When any of these words but i, are found before a 
verb, they are not articles, but pronouns relative, signi- 
fying him, her, it, them ; io lo vedo, I see him ; io il 
credo, I believe it; egli la stima, he esteems her, &c. 
See relative pronouns for their construction. 

These words, preceded by the preposition i?i, coalesce 
with it, making nello, nel, nella, negli, nei or ne\ nelle ; 
which are subject to the same rules as those words ; that 
is to say, they are put before the same nouns as the 
articles are, and $re abridged whenever the nouns begin 
with a vowel ; as — 



OF ARTICLES IN GENERAL. 51 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

nello ( 1 ) specchio.. ..in the looking-glass negli specchj 

nell'occhio .. ..in the eye negli occhj 

nel llbro in the booh nei or ne'libri 

nella cassa in the box nelle casse 

nell'anima in the soul nelle anime 

These examples will suffice, and there is no need of 
greater authority. 

When lo, il, la, gli, i, le, are preceded by the pre- 
position con, they coalesce with it, making collo, col, collti, 
cogli, coi, or co\ colle. 

Lo and gli before a noun beginning with s followed 
by a consonant, and la, le, before nouns beginning 
with a consonant, preceded by con, are better spelled 
con lo, con gli, con la, con le. The student, however, 
may use them either w r ay without committing a fault, as 
the best writers, and even grammarians, both ancient 
and modern, have used them indifferently. Here are a 
few examples to give authority to this assertion. 

Bocc. 3. 9. says : lo non viedico colla mia scienza, anzi 
collo ajuto di Dio, e colla scienza di Maestro Gerdrdo 
Narbonese, I do not pretend to cure you by my own 
ability, but I rely upon the help of God, and the 
science of Mr. Gerard Narbonese; and again : Bocc. Lett. 
E quelle colla fante, colla fornaja, e colla trecca, o colla 
lavandaja, berlingano senza resiare ; and they prate over 
their cups with the servant, baker, fruiterer, or washer- 
woman, without intermission. 

Soave, one of our best writers, and a grammarian, says : 
Ma nonfu liber ato, se non dopo die Elvira collo sposo 
furonpartiti per V Indie, but he was not set at liberty before 
Elvira, together with her husband, had gone to India ; 
and again : Stringendosi in parentela colla famiglia 
Suarez, by uniting himself w r ith the family of Suarez ; 



(l) Poets are wont to spell these words thus : — ne lo,nela, negli, 
ne le. In some poets of old date, we also find in lo, in la ; not to be 
imitated in prose. 

TS 9. 



52 OF ARTICLES IN GENERAL. 

and Gang. Le sue jiglie, se pensa ad opprimerle colle 
molte istruzioni, ec. If you wish to burthen your 
daughters with too much instruction, &c. ; and again : 
Ma noi viviamo in un certo secolo, nel quale sHmpone 
colle belle parole, but we live in a peculiar age, in winch 
people adorn their commands with fine words. There 
are innumerable examples, but the above will be suffi- 
cient to assure the student of the truth of our asser- 
tion. 

Out of these words, il and i only, preceded by the 
preposition per, coalesce with it, making pel, and pei or 
pe\ the other words remaining as they are, when preceded 
by per. 

Instead of pel and pei or pe\ we find per lo, per li, in 
authors of note, and we think it is more elegant. Ex. 
Bocc. 

E che voi del suo esilio, e dell 9 essere andato tapmo per 
lo mondo sette anni non siate cagione, questo non si pud 
negare ; you cannot deny that you have been the cause 
of his banishment, and of his wandering along through 
the world for seven whole years. 

Lo, il, la, gli, i, le, preceded by the preposition su, 
coalesce with it, making sullo, sul, sulla, sugli, sui or 
su\ sulle, and are subject to the same rules as those 
words are. Ex. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

sullo spirito on the mind sugli spiriti 

sull'opinione on the opinion sulle opinioni 

sul tetto on the roof sui or su'tetti 

sulla casa on the house sulle case 

suH'anima on the soul sulleanime 

These words, except sul and sui, may be spelled su h, 
su la, su gli, su le, without committing a fault. 

There is no need of more examples, as all gram- 
marians agree in this case. 

Lo, il, la, gli, i, le^ preceded by other prepositions, 
remain unaltered, and are spelled separately from them, 
except il and i, the i's of which may be dropped, and an 



OF THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE. 53 

apostrophe inserted, as trdl or tra! between the, or 
JtoHl, oxfrcH, instead of tra il, or tra ir—fra il, oxfra i ; 
as, fra'l or trdl padre e ilfiglio, between the father and 
the son ; Jra 1 or tra 1 Jratelli e le sorelle, between the 
brothers and the sisters ; instead oifra il, tra il,fra i, 
tra i, &c. 



Section III. 

OF THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE, 

This article has but three cases, the genitive, the 
dative, and the ablative, which serve for both genders 
and numbers; and the nominative and accusative of 
those nouns that are declined with this article are not 
distinguished by any mark. It is declined as follows :— 

Gen. di (1) ...of 

Dat. a to 

Abl. da ...from or by 

Observations. 

Di may drop the i and take an apostrophe, before 
Kouns beginning with a vowel ; as, di Antonio, or d" An- 
tonio. Before nouns beginning with an i, the i of di is 
always suppressed ; as, effetto d'ira, and not di ira, effect 
of wrath ; azion dlingrato, and not di ingrdto, action of 
an ungrateful man. 

A may take d, making ad, before nouns beginning 
with a vowel; as, a Ugo, or ad Ugo, to Hugh. Before 
nouns beginning with an a, ad is always to be used, and 
never a ; as, ad Antonio, to Anthony, ad Anna, to Anna., 
and not a Antonio, a Anna. 



(l) Grammarians do not agree about the name of these words. 
Some call them indefinite articles, others call them prepositions, 
and others other names ; but as the name does not alter their 
import, we shall call them articles when they precede a noun, and 
prepositions when they precede a verb. 



54 OF THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE. 

Da is never altered, though the nouns begin with a 
vowel. The reason is, that if the a were to be dropped^ 
it could not be distinguished whether it is the ablative 
or the genitive. 

Declension of the Indefinite Article with a Noun begin- 
ning with a Consonant. 

Nom. Pietro ...^.... Peter Roma Rome 

Gen. di Pietro of Peter di Roma of Rome 

Dat. a Pietro to Peter a Roma to Rome 

Ace. Pietro Peter Roma Rome 

Abl. da Pietro .from or by da Roma .from or by 

Peter Rome 

Nom. Ugo Hugh Anna Ann 

Gen. di or d'Ugo ..of Hugh di or d' Anna.. of Ann 

jDat. a or ad Ugo . . to Hugh a or ad Anna to Ann 

Ace. Ugo .Hugh Anna Ann 

Abl. da Ugo .from or by da Anna .from or by 

Hush Ann 



Section IV. 

OF THE NUMERAL UNO, ONE. 

As this word cannot be called an article, being the 
first of numbers, we should have omitted it in this part 
of the grammar ; but as it is generally used as an article 
by English grammarians, though in a different sense, we 
thought proper to insert it here. 

Uno is declined with the indefinite article. 

Nom. uno a, or an, or one 

Gen. di or d' uno of a, of an, of one 

Dat. a or ad uno to a, to an, to one 

Ace. uno a,an,one 

Abl . da uno .from a, by an, from one 

Observations. 
Uno is put before masculine nouns beginning with z 
or s impura; as, uno zio, an uncle; uno spirito, a 
spirit. 



OF THE NUMERAL UNO, ONE. 55 

Uno loses its o before all those masculine nouns that 
do not begin with z or s impura, whether they begin with 
a vowel or a consonant ; as, un libro > el book ; un angelo ^ 
an angel. 

Uno becomes una before feminine nouns beginning 
with a consonant ; as, una donna, a woman ; una signora, 
a lady. 

Uno loses its o, and takes an apostrophe, before feminine 
nouns, beginning with a vowel. Ex. 

Declension of Uno before Words beginning with z or s 

impura. 

Nom. uno zio anuncle uno sposo ....ahusband 

Gen. d'uno zio of an uncle d' uno sposo.. of a husband 

Dat. ad uno zio ...Jo an uncle ad uno sposo. Jo a husband 
Ace. uno zio. ...... .aw uncle uno sposo ....a husband 

Abl. da uno zio.... from an uncle da uno sposo., from or by a 

husband 

Declension of 'Un before Masculine Nouns beginning either 
with a Consonant or Vowel. 

Nom, un libro a booh un angelo .. ..an angel 

Gen. d'un libro ....of a booh di un angelo.. of an angel 

Dat. ad un libro ....to a booh a un angelo ..to an angel 

Ace. un libro a booh un angelo ....an angel 

Abl. da un libro.. ..from a booh da un angelo.. from or by an 

angel 

Declension of Una before Feminine Nouns beginnmg 
with a Consonant, and of Un with an Apostrophe 
before those that begin with a Vowel. 

Nom. una donna .♦ .. a woman un' ora an hour 

Gen. d'una donna ..of a woman d'un' ora of an hour 

Dat. ad una donna., to a woman ad un' ora ....to an hour 

Ace. una donna ....a woman un' ora an hour 

Abl. da una donna, .from a woman da un' ora ....from or by an 

hour 



56 OF NOUNS IN GENERAL. 

CHAPTER IIL 

OF NOUNS IN GENERAL. 

Nouns are divided into substantives and adjectives. 

A substantive, sostantivo, is the name of any thing 
that exists, or of which we have any notion ; as, heaven, 
cielo ; earth, terra ; universe, universe*. 

A substantive may, in general, be distinguished by 
its taking an article before it, or by making sense of 
itself; as, il libro, the book; la edsa, the house; it 
cavdllo, the horse, are substantives which have no need 
of any other word to make sense. 

Substantives are either proper, proprj v or common, 
communL 

Proper substantives are names appropriated to indi- 
viduals in particular; as, Tito, Titus; Roma, Rome; 
Frdncia, France. 

Common substantives stand for kinds containing many 
sorts, or for sorts containing many individuals under 
them ; as, animate, animal ; uomo, man. 

Italian infinitives, taken substantively, may be classed 
among common substantives ; as, il parlare, speaking ; 
il leggere, reading. 

Collective names also, which contain several indi- 
viduals or things under a singular noun, such as nazione, 
nation ; popolo, people ; moltitudine, multitude ; are 
placed among common substantives by grammarians. 

To substantives belong gender, genere, and number, 
numero ; and they are all of the third person when 
spoken of : as, Dio e il creatore delV universo, God is the 
creator of the universe. Dio here is of the third per- 
son, because Dio is spoken of. They are of the second 
person when addressed : as, Dio mio, abbi pieta di me, God 
have pity on me. Dio in this phrase is of the second 
person, because Dio is addressed. 



OF THE GENDER. 57 

Section I. 

OF THE GENDER. 

The Italian language has two genders, the masculine 
and the feminine, which are applied both to persons and 
things. 

The gender and number of substantives may be dis-' 
tinguished in Italian by their terminations, a, £, i, o, u, 
which we shall treat separately. 

Of the Gender of Substantives ending in a. 

Nouns ending in a 9 in general, are feminine, whether 
they belong to women or things. Ex. 



la donna the woman 

la terra the earth 



la dama the lady 

la casa the house 



Observations. 

1.(1) Among names of things, we may reckon those 
of the four quarters of the world, of empires, cities, and 
islands. Ex. 



PA'sia Asia 

FEuropa Europe 

la Russia.. .. ...Russia 

Roma Rome 

Sicilia Sicily 



PA'frica 1 Africa 

P America ....America 
la Francia ....France 

Londra London 

Malta Malta 



2. Nouns ending in a, expressing dignities, profes- 
sion, and religion, belonging to men, are masculine. 



il papa pope 

il legista .... lawyer 
il calvinista ..calvinist 



il duca uke 

il poeta poet 

U battista baptist 



Except la guardia, guard ; la sentinella, sentinel ; la 
guida, guide ; la scoria, escort, and perhaps a few more, 



(l) Though this observation is a repetition of what we said above, 
yet we think it is not needless for the student. 

d8 



58 OF THE GENDER. 

which are feminine, as their article imports, though they 
may belong to men. 

3. Proper names of men ending in a are masculine. 
Ex. 

Enea JEneas Luca Lucas 

• 4 The following nouns are of the masculine gender, 
though they do not belong to men. 

Panatema .... anathema 

Passiom a axiom 

Panagramma .anagram 

il baccala dried cod 

il clima climate 

il diadema .. ..diadem 

il dogma dogma 

il dramma ....drama 

Fenimma enigma 

Pepigramma. . epigram 
il fantasma ...phantom 



il monogramma..?wo;2og7 , aw* 

il pianeta .planet 

il poema poem 

il problema problem 

il programma .... .proposal 

il sistema si/stem 

il sofa sofa 

lo stratagemma ..stratagem 

il tema theme 

il teorem a theorem 

and perhaps a few more. 



Remarks. 

Drammq, signifying a drachm, is of the feminine 
gender. 

Fantasma is common to both genders ; and we say, il 
fantasma, or la fantasma. 

Terna^ signifyingj^ar, is of the feminine gender. 

Of the Gender of Substantives ending in e. 

[It is a difficult task to give infallible rules for knowing 
the right gender of nouns ending in e, yet the following 
ones will 9 if they do not entirely remove the difficidty, at 
least save the student some trouble.] 

I. Nouns denoting men, states, rivers, and the car- 
dinal points, ending in e, are of the masculine gender, 
and names of cities are of the feminine. Ex. 

Michele Michael 

II Modonese The State of Modena 

IlTevere,, , The Tiber 



OF THE GENDER. 59 

II ponente, or l'occidente west 

il levante, or l'oriente east 

il norte 5 or il settentrione north 

Avignone Avignon 

Rafaele Raphael 

l'A'dige the Adige 

Tebe Thebes 

2. Nouns ending in ie and udine, are feminine without 
exception. Ex. 

la specie sort 

la moltitudine.. multitude 



Peffigie ef) 

l'ingratitudine . , ingratitude 



3. Nouns ending in ere and ole, which terminations 
may change in ero and oh, are masculine. Ex. 

il pensiere, or pensiero thought 

il sentiere, or sentiero .path 

il console, or consolo consul 

il proconsole, or proconsolo .proconsul 

4. Nouns ending in ore are masculine, without ex- 
ceptions. Ex. 

il cuore heart | il fiore ..flower 

5. The following nouns are of both genders : — 



aere *....air 

arbore tree 

carcere ....... .prison 

cenere ashes 

dimane to-morrow 

folgore thunderbolt 

font e .fountain 

fronte .forehead 

fune rope 

fine end 



grandine hail 

gregge .flock or herd 

lepre hare 

margine margin 

noce nut-tree 

ordine order 

oste inn-keeper ', host 

serpe serpent 

tigre tiger 



Observations. 

Arbore, more used in the feminine. 
Carcere, and gregge, used in both genders in the sin- 
gular, and in the feminine in the plural. 

Dimane, signifying the morning, is only feminine. 



60 OF THE GENDER. 

Fonte, signifying a spring, is feminine only. 

Fune, better used in the feminine. 

Fine, signifying aim or design, is masculine only. 

Fronte, better used in the feminine. 

Noce, signifying the fruity is feminine ; when it signifies 
the tree, it is masculine. 

Oste, signifying host, as above, is masculine only; 
meaning an army, it is feminine only. 

There are many more nouns ending in e of both gen- 
ders, such as giovane, a youth ; erede, heir ; parente, 
relation ; fante, a servant, which are masculine when 
they belong to men, and feminine when they belong to 
women. Ex. 

il giovane ..a young man 

la giovane a young woman 

ilfante a manservant 

la fante ..a woman servant 

%* To find out the gender of other nouns ending 
in e r no other resource is left the student but to consult 
a dictionary. 

Of the Gender of Substantives ending in i. 

Nouns denoting men, rivers, and states, ending in i, 
are of the masculine gender. Ex. 

Giovanni John 

il Mississippi.. the Mississippi 
il Paraguai Paraguay 



Lirigi Louis 

il'Tamigi the Thames 

il Chili Chili 



To which may be added the following ones: — 



il di day 

il Martedi .... Tuesday 
il Mercoledi.. Wednesday 
il Giovedi .... Thursday 
ilLunedi Monday 



il Venerdi ....Friday 

il brindisi ....toast in drinking 

il bassotti ....dish ofmaccaroni 

il pari a peer ^a nobleman 

il barbaftiani ..eade-owl 



To which may be added compounded words, such as 
lo stuzzicadcnii, tooth-pick; il cacciadidvoli, exorcist ; 



OF THE GENDER. 61 

il casticamatti, rod; which are composed of stuzzica, 
present tense of stuzzicare, to pick, and dentin teeth ; 
caccia, present tense of cacciare, to drive, and diavoli, 
devils ; castica, present tense of casticdre, to punish, 
and matti, fools, &c. 

Names of cities and islands ending in i, are of the 
feminine gender. Ex. 

Napoli Naples Cipri Cyprus 

Algieri Algiers j Tunisi Tunis 

All other nouns ending in i, are of the feminine 
gender. 

Of the Gender of Substantives ending in o. 

Nouns ending in o, whether belonging to men or 
things, are masculine. Ex. 



Pietro Peter 

il libro book 

il cielo heaven 

Except la mdno, hand. 



il maestro ....master 

il capo head 

il nido nest 



Nouns belonging to women, fates ', furies ', muses, &c. 
and cities (1), ending in o, are of the feminine gender. 
Ex. 



Saffo Sappho 

A'tropo Atropos 

Clio Clio 

Aletto Alecto 

Dublino Dublin 

Cairo only is masculine. 



Dido Dido 

Cloto Clotho 

Erato Erato 

Corinto Corinth 



(l) Cartago, Carthage, and immdgo, image, are also feminine, accord- 
ing to the general rule ; but they are used by poets only. In prose 
we say Cartagine, immdgine* 



62 OF THE GENDER. 



Of the Gender of Substantives ending in u. 

Nouns ending in u are but few, and generally of the 
feminine gender. Ex. 

la virtu .virtue la gru .crane 

Proper names of men, angels, &c. ending in u 9 are 
masculine. Ragil 9 however, though not a proper 
name, is likewise masculine, and signifies a ragout, or 
fricassee. 

General Rule to find out the Gender of some particular 

Nouns. 

Proper names of men, angels, infernal deities, repre- 
sented under the figure of man, no matter what termi- 
nation they have, are of the masculine gender ; and 
names of women, and deities represented under the figure 
of women, are of the feminine gender. 

Proper names of rivers, kingdoms, and states, are of 
the masculine gender ; and those of cities, islands, and 
empires, of the feminine gender. 



Section II. 

OF THE NUMBER. 

Before we begin to set down rules for the formation 
of plurals, let us observe that masculine nouns of all 
terminations but ^, make their plural in i ; as— 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

il profeta .....prophet i profeti 

11 mare sea i mari 

il di - 7 ay i di 

il maestro ........master i maestri 



OF THE NUMBER. 63 

That feminine nouns ending in a make their plural in 
e 9 and those in e and in o make it in i ; as — 



SINGULAR. 

la donna .. ••• 


woman ...... 


PLURAL. 

le donne 


la voce 


voice 


le voci 


la tesi 

la mano 


thesis 

the hand 


le tesi 

le mani 



That nouns ending in u, and all those whose last 
vowel is accented, only change the article to form their 
plural ; as — 

SINGULAR. PLURAL* 

la virtu virtue le virtu 

il sofa sofa i sofa 

ii di day i di 

il canape sofa i canape 



Rules iojbrm the Plural of Nouns ending in a. 

Observe, that in speaking of the plurals, we intend 
to speak both of substantives and adjectives. 

1. Masculine nouns in a make their plural by changing 
a into i ; as — 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

il papa .pope i papi 

il poeta poet..... i poeti 

2. Masculine nouns ending in ca and ga, make their 
plural by changing ca and ga into chi and ghi ; as — 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

ii duca duke i duchi 

il collega colleague a .i colleghi 

3. Feminine nouns ending in a make their plural by 
changing a into e ; as — 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

la signora lady * le signore 

la casa house le case 

buona..... good..,* buone 



64 OF THE DUMBER. 

4. Feminine nouns ending in ca and ga 9 make their 
plural by changing ca and ga into die and ghe ; as — 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

la vacca .cow.* ....levacche 

la ruga wrinkle le rughe 

ricca rich ricche 

vaga.. charming vaghe 

5. Nouns ending in ta with an accent, make their 
plural by changing the article only ; as— 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

la citta ; city le citta, 

l'antichita antiquity le antichita(l) 

6. Nouns in cia and gia, make their plural by chang- 
ing cia and gia into ce and ge, provided cia and gia make 
but one syllable ; as — 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

la faccia .face le facce 

la pioggia rain le piogge 

concia .fitted conce 

saggia wise sagge 



Rules to form the Plural of Nouns ending in e. 

1. Nouns ending in e i whether substantives or adjec- 
tives, masculine or feminine, form their plural by chang- 
ing e into i ; as — 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

il fiume river i fiumi 

la croce ...cross .....lecroci 

felice ..happy .. felici 

amante loving amanti 



(1) Nouns in ta, formerly ended in tate and tade for the singular, 
and in tati and tadi for the plural ; as cittdte, cittade, cittati, cittadi, 
antichitate, antichitade, antichitati^ antichitadi ; but at present the ter- 
mination ta is preferable. , 



OF THE DUMBER. 65 

2. Nouns ending in ie 9 in e accented, and the word>£, 
only change the article for the formation of their plural ; 
as — 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

la specie sort ...le specie 

il canape sofa i canape 

il re king ire 

3. The following nouns are irregular in the forma- 
tion of their plural. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

la moglie wife le reogli 

il bue ox i bovi, or buoi 

mille thousand mila(l) 

Rules to form the Plural of Nouns ending in i. 

Nouns ending in i, whether masculine or feminine, 
whether their last vowel is accented or not, or whether 
they are substantives or adjectives, become plural by 
changing the article only ; as — 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

il pari peer i pari 

la tesi thesis le tesi 

il di day i di^ 

pari. ,„equal pari 

Rules to form the Plural of Nouns ending in o. 

1. Nouns ending in o, whether masculine or feminine, 
substantives or adjectives, are rendered plural by chang- 
ing o into i ; as — 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

il libro boolc i libri 

la mano hand le mani 

buono ..good buoni 

dotto learned dotti 



(l) Milia, instead of mila y h often found in poetry and prose, but 
at present is rather obsolete. 



66 OF THE NUMBER. 

Except the following, which deviate from the general 
rule. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

l'uomo man gli uomini 

Dio God.. .gli Dei, or Dii 

Observation. 

There are some possessive and demonstrative pro- 
nouns ending in o, of which the plural is irregular ; but 
we refrain from speaking of them here, because we are 
treating of nouns. 

2. Nouns ending in chio and ccliio are rendered 
plural by changing those terminations into chj and 
cchj (1) ; as — 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

il tor chio ......... .printing press . . . . i tor chj 

1'occhio.. eye gli occhj 

3. Nouns ending in cio, ccio> glio, gio, ggio^jo, be- 
come plural by dropping the o, provided those termina- 
tions form one syllable ; as — 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

il bacio kiss i baci 

lo staccio.. sieve gli stacci 

il ventaglio .fan i ventagli 

il raggio ray i raggi 

il fornajo baker i fornaj (2) 

When some of the above mentioned terminations and 
others ending in io, such as pio, vio, sio, rio, &c. form 
two syllables, the nouns to which they belong become 
plural by changing the last letter o into i, if the accent 



(1) Some writers have often made use of chi and cchi, instead of 
chj and cchj. But the student would do better to adhere to the 
above rules ; for chi and cchi are the plural of nouns ending in co or 
ceo, which see in the next page. 

(2) Nouns in ajo may change into aro, but this is not so much 
used as ajo. 



OF THE NUMBER. 67 

falls upon the i ; and by changing io intoj, if the accent 
falls upon any other letter than i ; as — 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

il benefici-o benefit i benefic-j 

lo stropicci-o .friction gli stroppicci-i 

il tempi-o temple , i temp-j 

pi-o pious pi-i 

Pavversari-o adversary gli avversar-j 

il mormori-o murmuring i mormori-i 

l'edifizi-o building ...gli edifiz-j 

il desi-o desire i desi-i 

lo zi-o uncle glizi-i(l) 

We have no certain rules to give for finding the pro- 
nunciation of the above words, and the student has no 
other means left to be acquainted with it than practice, 
or the consultation of some good dictionary containing 
accented words. 

4. Nouns in co of two syllables, whether substantives 
or adjectives, become plural by changing that termina- 
tion into chi ; as — 

SINGULAR. PLURAL, 

il cuoco cook i cuochi 

il fico .fig i fichi 

bianco white bianchi 

ricco rich ricchi 

The following ones, though of two syllables, make el 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

il porco pig i porci 

il Greco Greek.. i Greci 



(1) We have given to the above-mentioned nouns the plurals 
most in use at the present time ; yet a great many authors, whose 
works we have attentively read and examined, have, as we found, 
not been so particular in that respect. The following examples will 
confirm what we say, but they are not to be imitated. Buommattei 
says: Onde tutti gli orecchi intendono, Therefore all the ears hear it; 
instead of orecchj or orecchia. Macchiavelli says : Nella copia degli 
edifizi, in the great number of buildings; instead of edifizj. Borghini 
says: Non erano gli operai, the workmen were not; instead of 
operaj. 



68 OF THE NUMBER--- 

5. Nouns ending in co, of more than two syllables, ate 
generally rendered plural by changing co into ci, when. 
that termination is preceded by a vowel, and into chi 
when co is preceded by a consonant ; as — 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

Tamico .friend ..gli amici 

il nemico enemy i nemici 

il clerico clerk i clerici 

il bifolco labourer ..i bifolchi 

il Tedesco German i Tedeschi 

il lambicco still i lambicchi 

6. The following nouns in co become plural by chang- 
ing co into chi, though that termination is preceded by a 
vowel ; as — 



1'abaco abacus 

antico •.. ., ancient 

carico laden 

dim entico . . . .forgetful 

aprico exposed to the sun 

il beccafico ..Jig pecker 
pudico chaste 



il rammarico .regret 

il manico handle 

opaco dark 

stitico sullen 

il fondaco ....warehouse 

il traffico trade 

ubbriaco drunk 



7. Nouns in go are rendered plural, by changing go 
into ghi ; as — 

SINGULAR. PLERAL. 

l'albergo ...Ann gli alberghi 

l'usbergo corslet gli usberghi 

il catalogo catalogue i cataloghi 

Except the following ones, which make gL 

il teologo theologist i teologi 

Tasparago asparagus gli asparagi 

8. The following nouns ending in co and go, make ci 
and gi, chi, and ghi, in the plural ; as — 



1'apologo apologue 

analogo analagous 

l'astrologo .. ..astrologer 
il chirdrgo ....surgeon 

il dialogo dialogue 

il domestico ..servant 
il dittongo .. ..diphthong 



mendico beggar 

monaco monk 

pratico skilful 

reciproco reciprocal 

lo stomaco.... stomach 
&elvatico wild, 



OF THE NUMBER. 69 

All of which make apologia apologhi, monachi, rnma- 
ci % astrologhi, astrology pratichi, pratici y &c. in the 
plural. 

Rule to form the Plural of Nouns ending in u. 

Nouns # in u become plural by changing only the 
article; as — 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

la virtu (1) virtue....* ie virtu 



Section III. 

OF HETEROCLITE NOUNS. 

Heteroclite nouns are those which vary from the 
common forms of declension. 

Some of these have two singulars and one plural, 
others have two singulars and two plurals ; others again 
have one singular and two plurals ; and some even three, 
of all of which we shall treat separately. 

1. Of Nouns having two Singula?^ and one Plural. 

Nouns ending in ere of the masculine gender, may 
change that termination into ero, but their plural is 
always in eri ; as — 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

il (2J pensiere, or pensiero ..thought i pensieri 

il corriere, or corriero courier i corrieri 

To which may be added the following ones : — 

loscolare, orscolaro scholar gli scolari 

il console, or consolo consul i consoli 

( 1 ) Nouns in il of the feminine gender, formerly ended also in ute 
and ude, and in the plural, in uti and udi; as, virtute, virtude,virtuti, 
virtudi ; but at present these are never used, 

(2) We shall put the article to all these nouns, in order that the 
student, in committing them to memory, may be acquainted with 
their gender. 



70 OF HETEROCLITE NOUNS. 



Observation. 

We said that nouns in ere might be changed into ero, 
which terminations may be indifferently used ; but those 
that naturally end in ero cannot be changed into ere, as 
suocero, father-in-law ; zucchero, sugar, &c. cannot be 
changed into suocere, zucchere. 

%. Of Nouns having two Singulars and two Plurals. 

The following nouns have two singulars and two 
plurals ; but as some of them are not so much used as 
others, they will be distinguished by an asterisk. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

Pala and Pale wing le ale, ali 

Parma*, Parme weapon le arme, armi 

la canzona, canzone ..song le canzone*, canzoni 

la dota*, dote dowry le dote*, doti 

la froda, frode ..fraud le frode, frodi 

la fronda, fronde leaf le fronde, frondi 

la greggia, gregge ....flock . le greggie, greggi 

la loda*, lode praise le lode*, lodi 

la marina, marine* ..millstone^ le marine, macini 

la redina*, redine rein le redine, redini 

la scura*, scure axe le scure*, scuri 

la sorta, sorte kind le sorte, sorti 

la tossa*, tosse cough le tosse*, tossi 

la vesta, veste dress le veste, vesti 

Observation. 

Sorta y singular, and sorte, or sorti, plural, are used in 
speaking of ~kind, species, or sort ; and sorte, singular, 
is used only in speaking of destiny. 

3. Of Nouns having three Singulars cmd one Plural. 

The following nouns have three singulars ending 
in e, in o, and in i ; the latter, however, though often 



OF HETEROCL1TE NOUNS. 71 

found in good authors, is at present considered as 
obsolete. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

il destriere, destriero, destrieri steed i destrieri 

il mestiere, mestiero, mestieri trade .i mestieri 

il mulattiere, mulattiero, mulattieri ..mule driver.. i mulattieri 
il barbiere, barbiero, barbieri barber .i barbieri 

And perhaps a few more. 



4. Of Nouns having one Singular of the Masculine 
Gender \ and two Plurals^ one Masculine^ and the otheV 
Feminine. 

As some of the following nouns have one plural not 
so much in use as the other, we shall distinguish those 
that are rather obsolete by an asterisk. 

MASC. SINGULAR. MASC. PLURAL. FEM. FLURAL. 

l'anello ring gli anelli le anella 

il bisogno need, i bisogni le bisogna* 

il braccio arm i bracci* le braccia 

il budello gut i budelli* le budella ' 

il calcagno heel i calcagni le calcagna 

il carro car i carri le carra 

il castello castle i castelli le castella 

il ciglio eye-brow i cigli le ciglia 

il coltello knife i coltelli le coltella 

il comanda- ) . , ,. S le comanda- 

/ . } precept 1 comandamenti I .2 

mento .... S I menta* 

il corno horn i corni le corna 

il demonio demon i demonj le demonia* 

il dito .finger i diti* le dita 

il filo thread i fili le fila 

il fondamento.. foundation i fondamenti....le fondamenta 

il fuso spindle i fusi ...lefusa 

il gomito elbow i gomiti le gomita 

il ginocchio ....knee i ginocchj v .le ginocchia 

il granello grain i granelli le granella 

il grido cry i gridi le grida 

il labbro lip i labbri le labbra 

il lenzuolo sheet i lenzuoli le lenzuola 

il letto bed i letti le letta* 

il membro limb i membri le membra 



72 OF HETEROCLITE NOUNS. 

MASG. SINGULAR. MASC. PLURAL. FEM. PLURAL. 

il mulino mill i mulini le mulina* 

il muro wall i muri le mura 

l'orecchio ear gli orecchj Je orecchia 

il peccato sin ..i peccati le peccata* 

il pugno .fist i pugni le pugna 

il prato meadow i prati le prata* 

il quadrello ....arrow ... i quadrelli* le quadrella 

il sacco bag i sacchi le sacca 

lo strido shriek .gli stridi le strida 

il vestimento ...dress i vestimenti ....le vestimenta 

, l'urlo howl ...gliurli le urla* 



Observations. 

Gli anelli is used in speaking of the links of a chain, 
as in Ganganelli ; dal cielo alia terra vi e una catena tale 
die se non sene tengono bene tutti gli anelli, gV increduli 
non si vinceranno rnai, there is such a chain from heaven 
to earth, that if we do not catch hold of all the links of 
it, misbelievers will never be overcome ; and le anella, in 
speaking of golden rings, as in Bocc. 10. 9. epoi...fe y 
porre, e molti reli di pei~le, e anella> e cinture, ec, and 
then he caused to be put there rows of pearls, rings, and 
girdles. 

Bracci is seldom used for arms, but it may be used 
for yards or ells. 

I carri means carts. 

I cigli is seldom used for eyebrows, but it may be 
used for ridges. 

I corni is only used for French horns. 

I diti is used in speaking of a measure — inch. 

I gomiti means creeks, or a measure of a foot and a 
half. 

/ membri is used in speaking of the members of a 
society, not of limbs. 

Some grammarians have given to labbro, membro, 
besides the above plurals, another ending in e, such as 
le labbre, le membre, but these are better used in 
poetry. 



OF HETEROCLITE NOUNS. 73 

To the above nouns, which have one singular and two 
plurals, the following may be added, as found in ancient 
prosaic writers. 

MASC. SING. MASC. PLURAL. FEM. PLURAL. 

Pago needle gli aghi le agora 

il borgo borough i borghi le borgora 

il corpo body i corpi le corpora 

il dono gift i doni le donora 

il lato side i lati le latora 

il palco scaffold i palchi le palcora 

il tempo time i tempi le tempora 

il tetto roof i tetti le tettora 

These feminine plurals, however, are not used at pre- 
sent, except tempora, which is used in speaking of the 
fasting days, three of which happen in each season of 
the year, saying, le quattro tempora. 

5. Of Nouns being Masculine in the Singular, and 
Feminine in the Plural, and ending in a instead qfo. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

il cantajo weight of \50lbs ..le cantaja 

il centinajo hundred le centinaja 

il migliajo thousand le migliaja 

il miglio mile le miglia 

il moggio acre le moggia 

il pajo pair le paja 

lo stajo bushel le staja 

il riso laughter le risa 

Puovo ess le uova 



6. Of Nouns having one Masculine Singular, and three 
Plurals, one ending in i of the Masculine Gender, and 
izoo ending in e and in a of the Feminine. 

MASC. SING.' MASC. PLUR. FEMININE PLURALS. 

il frutto..... /rm£ i frutti le frutta..,.le frutte 

il gesto exploit e .i gesti le gesta ....le geste 

il legno wood i legni le legna....le legne 

l'osso bone gli ossi le ossa le esse 

il vestigio ..footstep i vestigj le vestigia.. le vestigie 



74 OF HETEKOCLITE NOUNS. 

Observations. 

Ifrutti means fruits of labour, revenue, profit ; le 
frutta and lefrutte signify both the production of trees 
and plants, and the dessert, signifying the fruit eaten 
after dinner. 

I gesti means gestures. 

Legni means any kind of ships, and also carriages. 



Section IV. 

OF DEFECTIVE NOUNS. 

Defective nouns are those that, from the nature of 
the things they express, have one number only, either 
singular or plural. 

The following ones have no singular. 

le nozze wedding 

le spezie spices 

parecchj, m. parecchie,/ ..several 

le rene, le reni the reins of the back 

le esequie , .funeral 

le froge .....the skin over the nostrils of a hoi % se 

To which may be added i vaniii, wings or feathers, 
which is used in poetry only. 

Those used only in the singular are — 



la prole offspring 

la progenie progeny 



la mane morning 

la stirpe race 



To which may added, names of metals, virtues, vices, 
&c. such as oro, gold; argento, silver; orgoglio, pride; 
pigrizia, laziness, &c. 

Of Collective Nouns. 

Collectives, as we have said, page 56, are those nouns 
which designate several individuals under a singular 
noun, and are divided into general and partitive. 



OF DEFECTIVE NOUNS. 75 

The general collectives are those which comprise an 
entire collection of individuals or objects, as esercito, 
army ; nazione, nation. 

The partitive collectives are those which comprise a 
part of a collection of individuals or objects ; as, parte, a 
part; quantita, quantity. 

Respecting the concordance of the adjective, verb, and 
participle, with these nouns, see Syntax of Verbs. 



OF ADJECTIVES, AND THE DEGREES OF COMPARISON 
IN GENERAL. 

Adjectives are words which serve to express the qua- 
lity of substantives ; as — 

uomo dotto a learned man 

donna bella a handsome woman 

str&da lunga a long street 

Adjectives in general are accompanied with substan- 
tives, but in Italian an adjective may stand alone with 
its article, and then the substantive is understood ; as — 

lo scelerato the wicked man 

il giusto the upright man 

Adjectives have three degrees of comparison or signi- 
fication : the positive, il positivo ; the comparative, il 
comparative) ; and the superlative, il snperlativo (1). 

The positive, which is nothing else but the adjective, 
expresses the quality of the substantive, without increase 
or diminution ; as — 

bello handsome brutto ugly 

dotto learned saggio wise 

(1) Grammarians have given the above names to the adjectives; 
but we are of opinion that the positive cannot be enumerated 
among the degrees of comparison ; because in saying uomo bello, a 
handsome man, we only express, by the positive bello, the quality, or 
rather the beauty of uomo, but do not compare him with another. 
However, as that cannot alter our purpose, we have followed the 
example of our predecessors. 

E 2 



76 OF DEFECTIVE NOUNS. 

The comparative, by the aid of some particles, com- 
pares, augments, and diminishes the positive in significa- 
tion ; as — 

tanto dotto as learned 

piu dolce sweeter 

meno bianco less white 

The superlative, by the addition of some letter to 
the positive, increases or lessens it to the highest or 
lowest degree ; as — 

dolce, dolclssimo very sweet 

bello, bellissimo very handsome 



^ 



Section I. 
of adjectives or positives. 

Adjectives in Italian end different ways, and have 
their gender and number, which change according to the 
nature of the substantive of which they expi*ess the qua- 
lity ; so that if the substantive is of the masculine 
gender, the adjective is to be masculine ; if it is of the 
feminine gender, the adjective is to be feminine ; and, 
finally, if the substantive is singular or plural, the adjec- 
tive is to be singular or plural ; as — 

uomo giusto an upright man 

donna giusta an upright woman 

uomini giusti upright men 

donne giuste upright women 

By these examples it is easily seen that giusto is mas- 
culine, because uomo is masculine; giusta is faminine, 
because donna is feminine ; and giusti and giuste are 
plural, because uomini and donne are plural . 

Adjectives, in their primitive state, end three ways in 
Italian* viz. o, £, i. 



OF ADJECTIVES OR POSITIVES. 77 

1. Those in o are of the masculine gender ; and by 
changing o into #, they become feminine. They are 
rendered plural by changing o into i, and a into e ; as — 

MAS. S. FEM. S. MAS P. FEM, P. 

bello bella belli belle handsome 

buono buona .'buoni buone good 

dotto dotta dotti dotte .......Jearned 

2. Those ending in e are of both genders, and become 
plural by changing e into i ; as — 

un uorao felice a happy man 

una donna felice a happy woman 

uomini felici happy men 

donne felici , happy women 

3. There is but one adjective ending in i 9 pari, which 
is of both genders and numbers ; as— 

pari studio equal study 

pari eta the same age 

pari esempj ,.,the same examples 



Observation. 

The plural of adjectives ending in co, chk), cio 9 glio, 
&c is formed according to the rules laid down for the 
formation of the plural of substantives ending the same 
ways. See page 66. 



Section II. 
of comparatives. 



Comparatives serve to compare one object with ano- 
ther ; and, as a comparison may be effected in three 
ways, we shall distinguish them by three names, viz. — - 
comparatives of equality, comparatives of superiority^ 
and comparatives of inferiority. 



78 OF COMPARATIVES. 

1. Comparatives of equality compare one thing with 
another, without increase or diminution ; and are formed 
by means of these adverbs, tanto .... quanto, cosi .... 
come, or only quanta or come, signifying so . . . . as, or as 
. ... as, which are accompanied with the positive as 
follows : — 

Pietro e tanto dotto quanta suo fratello 
Pietro e cosi dotto come suo fratello 
Pietro e dotto quanto suo fratello 
Pietro e dotto come suo fratello 
Peter is as learned as his brother 

2. Comparatives of superiority compare one thing 
with another, with increase ; and are formed by means 
of the adverb piu, more, which is put before the posi- 
tive; as — 

Pietro e piu dotto di suo fratello 
Peter is more learned than his brother 

Anna e piu bella di sua sorella 

Anna is more handsome, or handsomer, than her sister 

3. Comparatives of inferiority compare one thing with 
another, with diminution ; and are formed by means of 
the adverb meno, less, which is put before the positive ; 
as— 

Pietro e meno dotto di suo fratello 
Peter is less learned than his brother 

Anna e meno bella di sua sorella 
Anna is less handsome than her sister 



Observation. 

To increase the comparison, both of superiority and 
inferiority, we put before piu and meno the following 
adverbial particles, via, vie, assdi, molto, still or much, of 
which via and vie are sometimes spelled separately, and 
sometimes joined to piu, thus ; viappiu, vieppiu. Ex. 

Pietro e via piu, or viappiu, dotto di suo fratello 
Pietro e vie piu, or vieppiu, dotto di suo fratello 
Peter is still or much more learned than his brother 



OF COMPARATIVES. 79 

Anna e via meno, or vie meno, bella di sua sorella 
Anna e assai, or molto, meno bella di sua sorella 
Anna is still or much less handsome than her sister 

There are four adjectives, which, besides the common 
way of becoming comparatives by the aid of piu and 
meno, may also become such without the aid of those 
particles : — 

grande great piu grande, or maggiore ....greater 

piccolo ....small piu piccolo, or minore smaller 

buono good piu buono, or migliore „ better 

cattivo bad piu cattivo, or peggiore worse 

These four comparatives may also be increased by the 
aid of via, vie, assai, motto, as we have said above ; thus, 
vie maggiore, assai minore, molto peggiore, &c. 



Section III. 



OF SUPERLATIVES. 

The superlative increases or lessens the positive to 
the highest or lowest degree, as altissimo, very tall ; pic- 
colissimo, very small. 

Superlatives, in Italian, are divided into comparative 
and absolute. 

The superlative comparative is formed by putting il 
piil, la piu, i piit, le piit, the most, before the adjective or 
positive; as — 

il piii dotto the most learned man 

la piu virtuosa the most virtuous woman 

i piu vecchj the most old, or oldest, men 

le piu brutte the most ugly women 

The superlative absolute is formed by changing the 



80 OF SUPERLATIVES. 

last letter of the masculine plural (1) of adjectives into 

issimo ; as— 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. SUPERLATIVE. 

caro cari dear car-issimo very dear 

poco pochi little poch-issimo very little 

vario varj different,, . . var-issimo very different 

Instead of issimo, the adverb rnolto, and sometimes 
assail may be put before the adjective to form the super- 
lative ; as — 

carissimo, or molto caro very dear 

pochissimo, or molto poco vert/ few 

varissimo, or mol to vario very different 

There are some adjectives that may be rendered super- 
latives in another way ; as — 

POSITIVE. SUPERLATIVE. 

acre ..sharp acerrimo very sharp 

buono good ottimo very good 

cattivo , .. ..bad pessimo very bad 

celebre renowned celeberrimo much renowned 

grande great massimo very great 

integro upright integerrimo very upright j 

piccolo small minimo very small 

salubre healthy saluberrimo very healthy 

Superlatives, like adjectives, have their gender and 
number. They end in o for the masculine, in a for 
the feminine, in i for the masculine plural, and in e for 
the feminine plural. 

MAS. S. FEM. S. MAS. P. FEM. P. 

dottissimo..dottissima..dottissimi..dottissime very learned 

acerrimo ...acerrima ...acerrimi ...acerrime very sharp 



(l) Grammarians have given a rule to form superlatives, by 
changing the last letter of the singular of adjectives into issimo. 
But as that rule admits of many exceptions, we have made this 
alteration^ which answers our purpose without confusion. 



OP SUPERLATIVES. 81 



Observation. 



Among superlatives, we may enumerate others which 
are formed, either by repeating the positive, as hello hello*, 
very handsome ; buono buono, very good ; or by the 
aid of some adverbs which are put before the adjective. 
These adverbs are oltre misura, beyond measure ; oltre 
ogni credere, beyond belief; oltremodo, estremamente, 
senza fine, extremely ; fuor di misura, senza modo, ex- 
cessively ; and others which may be learned by practice, 
and the perusal of good authors. Ex. 

grande fuor di misura excessively large 

ricco oltre ogni credere ....rich beyond belief 
estremame'nte bello extremely handsome 

These expressions, when well applied, add much grace 
and energy to composition. 



Section IV. 

OF AUGMENTATIVES AND DIMINUTIVES. 

The Italian language has a peculiarity, which is, to 
augment or diminish the signification of nouns, whether 
substantives or adjectives, by the addition of a few let- 
ters ; and then they are called augmentatives, aumenta- 
tivi, or accrescitivi ; or diminutives, diminutivi. 

Nouns become augmentatives, 

1. By changing their last letter into one for both gen- 
ders ; and then they denote something large or great. 
Ex. 

un libro a book un librone a large book 

un coltello ....« knife un coltellone ....a large knife 

un cappello....a^«£ un cappellone ...a large hat 

una donna ....a woman un donnone a large woman 

una casa a house un casone a large house 

una porta a door.,,, un portone a large door 

*3 



82 OF AUGMENTATIVES AND DIMINUTIVES. 

%. By changing their last letter into actio, for the 
masculine, and accia, for the feminine ; and then they 
denote something large or great, and, at the same time, 
ugly, contemptible, bad, old, &c. 

libraccio a large old book 

coltellaccio a great clumsy knife 

cappellaccio a large ugly hat 

donnaccia an ugly woman 

casaccia a large old house 

portaccia an old ponderous door 

Nouns are rendered diminutives, 

1. By changing their last letter into ino, etto, ello, for 
the masculine, and ina, etta, ella, for the feminine ; and 
then they denote something small or young, and some- 
times small and pretty. 

leone lion leoncino ...lion's whelp 

gatto cat gattino kitten 

car a,. dear carina pretty little dear 

mano hand.., manina pretty little hand 

libro book libretto ....a small book 

donna woman donnetta...a neat little woman 

pastore ....shepherd pastorello..« young shepherd 

pastora ,. < . shepherdess .. pastor ella.. a young shepherdess 

2. By changing their last letter into uccio, uzzo, icci- 
nolo, for the masculine, and uccia, uzza, icciuola, for the 
feminine ; and then they denote something small or 
little, but at the same time mean or contemptible ; as — 

C uomuzzo a mean or an ill— 

uomo man -?uomuccio looking little 

£ omicciuolo man 

verme worm vermicciuolo .a small worm 

, { donnuccia. ...a mean or ill-look- 

donna woman.... < , • • / } • r ,.i 

( donnicciuola mg little woman 

Except proper names of men and women, which, 
though ending in uccio, or uccia. in being made diminu- 
tives, denote something little or pretty ; and sometimes 
it is used only by habit ; as it happens also in English, 



OF AUGMENTATIVES AND DIMINUTIVES. 8S 

that an old man is called by the diminutive name which 
they gave him when a boy — 

Andrea Andrew Andreuccio 

Anna Ann Aunuccia 

To which may be added — 
bocca ..mouth boccuzza pretty little mouth 

Observations. 

Augmentatives ending in one, may also end in ma for 
the feminine ; but the termination in one is preferable, 

Nouns ending naturally in one, accio, ino, etto, ello, 
uccio, uzzo 9 icciuolo, cannot be made augmentatives and 
diminutives as above ; but by the aid of some other 
words which are put either before or after them. 

bastone stick gran bastone ....large stick ] 

braccio arm braccio mal fatto.e'// made arm 

vino vjine vino picciolo ....small wine 

There are other augmentatives and diminutives, ending 
different ways ; but as they cannot be reduced to a 
general rule, and as they may be found in all dictionaries, 
we thought proper to omit speaking of them at length. 



OF NUMERAL NOUNS IN GENERAL. 

Numeral nouns are of three sorts ; viz. — the cardinal, 
or principal ? i cardinally or principali ■■; the ordinal, gli 
ordinativi ; and the collective, or distributive, collettivi, 
or distributivi. 

The cardinal, or principal numbers, are those which 
mark.no order ; as, one, two, three, uno, due, tre. 

The ordinal numbers are those which mark order ; as, 
first, second, third, prbno, secondo, terzo. 

Distributives, or collectives, are those numbers which 
signify a numbered quantity ; as, a dozen, a score, a 
thousand, una dozzina, ana ventina, iin migliajo. 



84? OF THE CARDINAL NUMBERS. 

Section I. 

OF THE CARDINAL OR PRINCIPAL NUMBERS. 

These numbers are called cardinal, or principal, be- 
cause they mark a number without order. 

uno one 

s due(l) two 

tre three 

quattro .four 

cinque .five 

sei six 

sette * seven 

otto eight 

nove nine 

died ten 

undid eleven 

dodici twelve 

tre'dici thirteen 

quattordici .fourteen 

quindid .fifteen 

sedici sixteen 

diciassette seventeen 

diciotto eighteen 

diciannove nineteen 

venti twenty 

ventuno twenty-one 

ventidue twenty-two 

ventitre twenty-three 

ventiquattro twenty-four 

venticinque twenty-five 

ventisei twenty-six 

ventisette twenty -seven 

ventotto twenty-eight 

ventinove twenty-nine 

trenta ». .. thirty 

trentuno thirty-one 

trentadue, ec thirty-two, $c. 

quaranta -forty 

cinquanta .fifty 

(O Poets make use of duo and duoi, and the Florentines of dua, 
all of which are to be avoided, as well in composition as in familiar 
conversation. 



OF THE CARDINAL NUMBERS, 85 

sessanta sixty 

settanta seventy 

ottanta eighty 

novanta ninety 

cento a hundred 

dugento two hundred 

trecento three hundred 

quattrocento, ec four hundred, fyc. 

mille a thousand 

dumila, ec two thousand, $c. 

un milione ..* a million 

duemilioni, ec .....two millions, $c. 



Observations. 

Cardinal numbers are generally adjectives of both 
genders ; but have no singular. Ex. 

tre uomini three men 

nove donne nine women 

quaranta cavalli 'forty horses 

cento vacche a hundred cotus 

Exceptions. 

Uno, as an adjective, makes una for the feminine, and 
has no plural, see page 54; but as a substantive, it 
makes wni and une in the plural. See Syntax of Numeral 
Nouns. 

Ventiino, trentuno^ and all numbers ending in uno, 
make ventuna, trentuna for the feminine ; but they have 
no plural ; as — 

ventuno uomo twenty-one men 

trentuna donna thirty-one women 

See Syntax of Numeral Nouns for more particulars. 

Mille is of both genders, and makes mUa in the 
plural. 

mille uomini a thousand men 

dumila uomini two thousand men 

mille donne a thousand women 

tre mila donne . , three thousand women 



86 OF THE CARDINAL NUMBERS. 

Milione, which may be called rather a distributive or 
collective, than a cardinal, makes milioni in the plural ; 
and, as it is always a substantive, it governs the genitive ; 
so that we cannot say milione uomini, but un milione, 
or due milioni, d'uomini, a million or two millions of 
men. 

Instead of due cento and due mila, we say dugento, 
dumila. 

We never say undid cento, for eleven hundred, dodici 
cento, for twelve hundred, tredici cento, for thirteen hun- 
dred, &c, but mille e cento, mille e dugento, rattle e tre- 
cento ; and if a smaller number follows, the conjunction 
e is to be put before it ; as, mille tfugento e tre, one 
thousand two hundred and three ; tre mila quattro cento 
e quattro, three thousand four hundred and four ; ex- 
cept, however, when we speak of the date of the year, 
as, mille otto cento ventiquattro. 

We never say uno e venti, one and twenty ; due e 
trenta, two and thirty ; tre e quarania, three and forty ; 
but we always put the tens first, as, ventuno, trentadue, 
quarantatre, &c. 

In playing at cards or dice, the numbers from two to 
ten, (as the first number in speaking of cards and dice 
is called assd), become substantives of the masculine 
gender, and have their plural (1); as — 

Un due, a two ; tre dm, three twos ; un quattro, a 
four ; tre quattri, three fours ; un cinque, a five ; quattro 
cinqui, four fives ; un otto, an eight ; due otti, two 
eights ; un nove, a nine ; due novi, two nines. 

Except tre, sei, and died, which have no plural, be- 
cause tre is an accented word, and sei and died end in i 9 
which words, as we have said in speaking of the sub- 
stantives, have no plural. 



(1) Notwithstanding this rule, which is given by Buommattei, 
we continually hear Italians say, tre sette, quattro due, due quattro. 
We think it better to follow the rule of Buommattei. 



OF THE CARDINAL NUMBERS. 87 

In putting the date of the month in letters, we say i 
or ai 2, i or ai 3, i or ai 4, i or ai 5, i or ai 6, i or 
«i 7, g$ or agli 8, i or ai 9, « or ai 10, gli or a^Zi 11, 
the second, the third, &c. ; except, however, the first and 
the last, which we express il prima e V ultimo. 

In counting the hours of the day, the cardinal num- 
bers, from one to twelve, take the definite article femi- 
nine. Ex. 

Tuna ,.le due....le tre....le quattro....le cinque,.. ..Ie sei 
one two three., ..four ..Jive six o'clock 

Twelve o'clock, however, may be expressed by mez- 
zodi and mezzanotte. 

If they are in the dative, alia or alle is to be used ; 
and if in the ablative, dalla, or dalle. Ex. 

egli e venuto alle tre he came at three o'clock 

e state qui dalle tre alle sette.'...he has been here from three to 

seven o'clock 



Section II. 



OF ORDINAL NUMBERS. 



These numbers are called ordinal., because they mark 

order. 

primo .first 

secondo second 

terzo third 

quarto .fourth 

quinto .fifth 

sesto sixth 

settimo seventh 

ottavo eighth 

nono ninth 

decinio tenth 

undecimo ♦*. .eleventh 

duodecimo twelfth 



88 OF ORDINAL NUMBERS. 

decimoterzo . . thirteenth 

decimoquarto, ec .fourteenth, §c. 

ventesimo twentieth 

ventesimo primo twenty-first 

ventesimo secondo, ec twenty- second, fyc. 

trentesimo thirtieth 

quarantesimo .fortieth 

cinquantesimo .fiftieth 

sessante'simo sixtieth 

settantesimo seventieth 

ottantesimo eightieth 

novantesimo ninetieth 

centesimo hundredth 

dugente'simo two hundredth 

trecentesimo three hundredth 

quattrocentesimo four hundredth 

cinquecentesimo .five hundredth 

seicentesimo, ec six hundredth, fyc. 

imllesimo thousandth 



Obsei-vations. 

Ordinal numbers, like adjectives, have both genders 
and numbers. Their natural termination in o is mas- 
culine, and by changing o into «, they become feminine ; 
as for their plural, o is changed into i, and a into e ; 
as — 

MAS. S. FEM. S. MAS. P. FEM. P. 

primo .....prima primi prime 

secondo seconda secondi seconde i 



When some of these numbers mean a part of a whole, 
they are substantives ; as — 

un terzo a third un quarto a fourth 

un quinto a fifth un sesto * a sixth 



OF COLLECTIVE NUMBERS. 89 



Section III. 



OF COLLECTIVE OR DISTRIBUTIVE NUMBERS. 

These numbers are called collective or distributive^ 
because they signify a numerical quantity. 

un pajo a pair 

mezza dozzina half a dozen 

una decina half a score 

una dozzina a dozen 

una quindicina .fifteen 

una ventina a score 

una trentina one score and a half 

una quarantina two score 

una cinquantina, ec two score and a halftyc* 

un centinajo a hundred 

due centinaja two hundred 

un migliajo a thousand 



Observation. 

Pajo, dozzina, centinajo, and migliajo^ have a plural, 
but not the other numbers ; thus — 

un pajo a pair 

due paja two pair 

una dozzina a dozen 

due dozzine ..two dozen 

un centinajo a hundred 

due centinaja two hundred 

un migliajo a thousand 

due migliaja two thousand 



90 OF PRONOUNS IN GENERAL. 



CHAPTER IV. 

OF PRONOUNS IN GENERAL. 

A pronoun, pronome^ or vicenome^ is a word used 
instead of a noun, to avoid the too frequent repetition of 
the same word : as, Vuomo e mortale, eppure egli non 
pensa alia morte, man is mortal, yet he does not think of 
death. 

As to the division of pronouns, grammarians are at 
variance. Some have classed them in one way, some in 
another, and some have called them by different names; 
but as names do not alter the signification of things, and 
as, in teaching, the easiest rules are the best, we, in order 
to render this treatise on pronouns clearer, have, in a few 
instances, deviated from our predecessors. 

We say, therefore, that there are six sorts of pro- 
nouns. 



the personal i personali 

or primitive or primitivi 

the possessive .. ..i possess! vi 
the demonstrative i dimostrativi 



the relative i relativi 

the interrogative. ^'mievrogpiivi 
the improper ....gl'improprj 
or indefinite or gl'indefiniti 



Section I. 



OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 



Personal pronouns are so called, because they mark 
persons; and they admit of genders, numbers, and cases. 

These pronouns have three persons, who may be the 
subject of any discourse ; the first is the person who 
speaks, the second is the person spoken to, and the third 
is the person spoken of; and as the speakers and the 
persons spoken to or of may be more than one, so 



OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 91 

each of these persons must, of course, admit of a plural 
number. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

First person Io I noi we 

Second tu thou voi. ye or you 

rpi • , ( egli....^ eglino they, masc. 

(ella....^ elleno they, fern. 

The persons speaking and spoken to, or rather the 
first and second persons, both of the singular and plural, 
are of both genders ; but the persons or things spoken 
of, or rather the third persons, are marked by a distinc- 
tion of gender : so that egli, he, marks the masculine 
gender, and ella, she, the feminine, in the singular ; 
eglino marks the masculine, and elleno the feminine, in 
the plural. 

Declension of Personal Pronouns. 

From the personal pronouns are derived — 

the disjunctive i disgiuntivi, or i separativi 

the conjunctive i congiuntivi, or gli affissi 

the relative i relativi, or gli affissi 

As these pronouns are derivations, they are also called 
derivatives, derivativi. 

These pronouns are declined with the indefinite arti- 
cle, di } a, da. 

First person singular. 

DISJ. CONJ. REL. 

Nom. I Io(l) 

Gen. of me di me ne(2) 

Dat. to me a me mi 

Ace. me me .....mi 

Abl. from me ....da me ne 



(1) Instead of io we find i' in prose and poetry ; but we think it 
is better to leave this licence to poets only. 

(2) The relative ne, which we have affixed to all genitives and 
ablatives in the declension of these pronouns, has been but indiffe- 



92 OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

Tlural. 

DIS. CONJ. EEL. 

Nom. we noi 

Gen. of us di noi ne 

Dat. tons a noi ci, ne(l) 

Ace. us noi ci, ne(l) 

Abl. from us da noi ne 

Second person singular. 

DIS. CONJ. EEL. 

Nom. thou tu(2) 

Gen. of thee di te ne 

Dat. to thee a te ti 

Ace. thee te ,.....^....ti 

Abl. from thee ...da te .ne 

Plural. 

DIS. CONJ. EEL. 

Nom. you voi(2) 

Gen. of you di voi ••••••»ns 

Dat. to you a voi vi 

Ace. you voi vi 

Abl. from you.... da voi .... ••••..ne 

Third person masculine singular. 

DIS. CONJ. EEL. 

Nom. he or &....egli {3), esso 

Gen. of him, i£...dilui, d'esso ....ne 

Dat. to him, it. ..a lui, ad esso U,(4) gli (5) 

rently explained by modern grammarians. They have indeed said 
something about it ; but they have applied it to things only ; such 
as, of it or of them, from it or from them, and not to persons, as above. 
The examples which we have given in the syntax of personal 
pronouns, will justify us for this bold insertion, as some have been 
pleased to term it, in order to appear critics. 

(1) Ne instead of ci is rather pedantic in familiar conversation ; 
but in composition it is elegant. 

(2) Instead of tu and voi, poets and ancient writers have used tue 
and vui ; but the student is not to pay attention to them. 

(3) EM, ello, for egli ; elli, ellino, for eglino, have been used by 
poets and ancient writers, but they are now obsolete. 

(4) Li instead of gli dative, is seldom used in prose, much less in 
familiar conversation. 

(5) Gli has been used for a loro, to them; but the student 16 to 
avoid it as incorrect. 



OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 93 

DIS. CONJ. EEL, 

Acc. himorit....\u\(\), esso .il, lo 

Abl. from him, it da lui, da esso ne 

Plural. 

DIS. CONJ. REL. 

Nom. they eglino, essi 

Gen. of them di loro, di essi ne 

Dat. to them a loro, ad essi . 

Acc. them loro (2), essi gli, li 

Abl. from them ..da loro, da essi , ne 

Third person feminine singular. 

DIS. CONJ. REL. 

Nom. she or it ....ella, essa 

Gen. of her, it...&\ lei, di essa ne 

Dat. to her, it ..a lei, ad essa le % 

Acc. her or tf ....lei, (2) essa r la 

Abl. fromher, i^.dalei, da essa ne 

Plural. 

DIS. CONJ. EEL. 

Nom. they elleno, esse 

Gen. of them di loro, di esse ne 

Dat. to them a loro, ad esse 

Acc. them loro, esse le 

Abl. from them. .da loro, da esse ne 

Of the Pronoun se, which is of both Genders. 

DIS. CONJ. REL. 

Nom. caret 

Gen. of himself, herself . ..di se ne 

Dat. to himself her 'self.... a se „.si 

Acc. himself herself se si 

Abl. from himself herself da se ne 



(1) Lui, him ; gli, to him ; lei, to her ; la, her, are on no account 
to be used instead of egli, he, and ella, she ; and though we often 
hear well educated Italians say, luihafatto,he has done; glie partito, 
he is gone away ; lei mi scusi, excuse me i la mi dia, give me ; instead 
of egli hafatto, egli e partito, ella mi scusi, ella mi dia ; yet the student 
who wishes to speak correctly, is to avoid that manner of speaking, 
as faulty, and contrary to grammatical rules. 

(2) Lui, lei, loro, have been used by good prosaic writers, but the 
practice of using them for colui, colei, coloro, is not to be imitated. . 



94 OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 



Observations on the Personal Pronouns in their first state. 

1. Egli) he, may be either abridged or syncopated 
thus, e* ei, which are used both in prose and poetry ; 
and especially when gli> signifying to him or them, fol- 
lows; as — 

e'gli disse he told them .for... . egli gli disse 

ei gli ama he loves them ....for.... egli gli araa 

2. Egli) e\ ei 9 though singular, have been used for 
plural by good writers ; but in that point they are not 
to be imitated. 

Ella, she, and elle, its plural, as an abbreviation of 
ellenO) have often been used by poets in the oblique cases 
for lei and loro ; but it is a poetical licence, and not to 
be imitated. 

3. Egli) he, and ella) she, with all their derivatives, 
both singular and plural, are used in speaking of ani- 
mated or rational objects, such as gods, goddesses, 
planets, angels, &c. Ex. 

Io vidi Francesco, egli era afHitto. 

I saw Francis , he was sorrowful.' 

Parlai con Anna, ella e bellissima. 

7" spoke to Anna, she is very handsome. 

Ho comprato un cavallo, egli e forte. 

/ bought a horse, he is strong. 

Ho una gatta, ella e piccolissima. 

/ have a eat, she is very small. 

Ecco un bel Cupido, egli e ben dipinto. 

There is a fine Cupid, he is well painted. 

Ecco Diana, ella e la dea de' boschi. 

There is Diana, she is the goddess of the woods. 

4. EssO) he, and essa, she, with all their derivatives, 
both singular and plural, are used in speaking of ani- 
mals, things, deities, &c. without exception. 

5. Egli) he, ella) she, eglino and ellenO) they, are 
never to precede cite or il quale ; therefore, where the 
student finds he who or wftom, dhe who, they zvhO) &c, 



OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 95 

he is to translate them quegli che or il quale ; quella che 
or la quale ; quel che or i quali ; quelle che or le qualL 
See demonstrative pronouns. 

Observations on Disjunctive Pronouns. 

1. These pronouns are so called, because they are 
never joined to the verb, whether they are put before or 
after it. 

2. A lui, to him, a lei, to her, a loro, to them, have 
often been used without a ; as — 

Io dissi lui I told kim 

egli diede lei he gave her 

noi parliamo loro we speak to them 

3. Me* me, te, thee, se, himself, accompanied with con, 
are expressed — 

meco con meco ....con me ....withme 

te'co con teco con te with thee 

seco con seco con se with himself 

Meco, teco, seco, however, are preferable. 

Observations on Conjunctive and Relative Pronouns. 

1. The pronouns conjunctive are so called, because 
they may be joined to a verb when put after it, and 
make one word with it ; as — 

ella amavami she loved me 

egli parlavati he spoke to thee 

per vederci in order to see us 

2. The pronouns relative are so called, because they 
refer to some persons or things spoken of before ; as — 

Pietro e venuto ed io non Pho visto. 
Peter is come and I have not seen him. 
Gioanna e bella, eppure egli non Tama. 
Jane is handsome^ yet he does not love hei\ 



96 OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

3. These pronouns may also be called conjunctive, 
because they may, like conjunctive pronouns, be joined 
to the verb, when they are put after it, and make one 
word with it. 

per vederlo in order to see him 

egli amavala he loved her 

chiudeteli shut them 

4. Ci, and vi, signifying there, thither, with it, or, 
tliem, in it, m them, &c. are reckoned among the con- 
junctive pronouns. Ex. 

egli andavaci he went thither 

egli davaci he gave us 

ella non vi era she was not there 

ella non vi dava she did not give you 

mettici la mano .put thy hand upon it 

dateci la mano give us your hand 

5. Mi, ti, vi, si, ne, may or rnay not drop their last 
letter, and take an apostrophe, before a verb beginning 
with any vowel but i ; for in that case the i must always 
be dropped. Ex. 

egli m'cnora, or mi onora he honours me 

egli t'ama, or ti ama he loves thee 

noi v'adoriamo, or vi adoriamo ...we adore you 

io m'ingegno, not mi ingegno I endeavour 

ei v' irrita, not vi rita he irritates you 

6. Ci, and gli, drop their last vowel only before verbs 
beginning with an i; as — 

egli c'intende he understands us 

ella gl'insegna sheteaclies him 

C\ is often found before verbs beginning with e ; as, 
cevita, he avoids us. But we think it is better to spell 
it whole, thus, ci evita. 

7. Lo, and la, may drop their last letter, and take an 
apostrophe, before a verb in its compound tense ; for 



OF TERSONAL PRONOUNS. 97 

if otherwise, the gender could not be distinguished. 

Ex. 

io Pho amata I have loved her 

ella l'ha veduto she has seen him 

In these examples, amata and veduto mark the gen- 
ders of V with an apostrophe ; but if the verb is not in 
its compound tense, lo and la are not to drop their last 
letter, unless the verb, preceded by lo, begins with o, and 
that preceded by la, begins with a. Ex. 

io la onoro I honour her 

ella lo adora she adores him 

io l'addro I adore her 

ellal'onora she honours him 

In these last examples, io V adoro, ella V onora, the a 
and o of the pronouns lo and Za, are dropped, to avoid 
the meeting of two a's and two o^s. 

8. II, and lo. II is put before verbs beginning with 
any consonant but s followed by another consonant ; 
as — 

io il conosco I know him 

ella il diceVa she said it or so 

eglino il credono they believe it 

Lo is put before verbs beginning with any consonant 
or vowel, as we said above. Ex. 

ei lo portava he brought him 

ella lo estimava she esteemed him 

eglino lo dicono they say so 

9. Li, and gli. Li is put before verbs beginning 
with a consonant only. Ex. 

ei li vedeva he saw them 

ella li lodava she praised them 

eglino li stimaHo they esteem them 

Gli is put before verbs beginning with consonants and 
vowels, with the exception which we gave above. Ex. 

ei gl Wedeva he saw them 

ella' gS amava i she loved them 

eglino gli adorano they adore them 

F 



98 OF POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 

Section II. 

OF POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 

These pronouns are called possessive, because they 
relate to possession or property ; for the expressions il 
mio oriiwlo, my watch ; la mia casa> my house, mean 
the same as, the watch which belongs to me, the house I 
dm possessed of. 

Possessive pronouns are either copulative, copulativi ; 
or absolute, assoluti. 

They are called copulative, when, like adjectives, they 
agree with the substantives with which they are accom- 
panied, in gender and number. Ex. 

mio padre my father 

sua madre his mother 

suoi fratelli his brothers 

nostre sorelle our i 



They are called absolute, when, like substantives, they 
subsist by themselves without any support ; as — 

Dammi il mio , give me mine 

Prendiil tuo take thine 

These pronouns are six in number, and have genders 
and numbers, viz. : — 

MAS. SING. FEM. SING. MAS. PLUR. FEM. PLUR. 

my or mine mio mia(l) miei mie 

thy, thine tuo tua tuoi tue 

his/her, hers suo sua suoi sue 

our, ours nostro nostra nostri nostre 

your, yours vostro vostra vostri vostre 

their, theirs....... lor o, for both genders and numbers 



(l) The Tuscans often use mia, tua, sua, for miei, tuoi, suoi, mie, 
tue, sue ; saying, i mia capelli, for i miei capelli, my hair ; le tua sorelle, 
for le tue sorelle, thy sisters ; i sua parenti, for i suoi parenti, his rela- 
tions ; but this idiotism is to be avoided with great care. 



OF POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 99 

Declension of Possessive Pronouns. 

These pronouns are declined with the definite article ; 

il and la, for the singular; and i and le, for the 

plural. 

MAS. s:ng. fem. sing. mas. plur. fem. plur. 

Nom. il mio la mia i miei le mie. .....mine 

Gen. del mio della mia...dei miei ...delle mie.. of mine 

Dat. al mio alia mia....ai miei ....alle mie ...to mine 

Ace. il mio la mia i miei le mie mine 

Abl. dal mio dalla mia...dai mie'i ...dalle mie.. from mine 

Observations. 

1. These pronouns are to agree with the object or 
thing possessed, not with the possessor, as in English ; 
so that, in translating her husband, his wife, you are to 
say, il suo marito, la sua moglie, and not la sua marito, 
il suo rnoglie. 

2. Suo, sua, suoi, sue, are changed into di lui and di 
lei, when they cause ambiguity : as, for example, if one 
were to speak of a brother and a sister, and say, his 
Jwuse is elegant, and her garden is full of flowers, his 
and her should not be translated suo, sua, but di lui and 
di lei, thus : — la di lui casa e elegante, e il di lei giardino 
e pieno di fiori. I di lui libri, his books ; le di lei case, 
her houses. 

3. Loro, as it is seen, has no variation, being of both 
genders and numbers. 



Section III. 

of demonstrative pronouns. 

Demonstrative pronouns are those which precisely 
point out the subjects to which they relate; as- — 

questo signore this gentleman 

quella dama ..that lady 

quei libri..... those books 

quelle case .• those houses 

f2 



100 OF DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 

These pronouns are of three sorts in Italian. 

1. The first comprehends those which point out per- 
sons or things near the person who speaks; as the 
following. 

MAS, SING. MAS. PLUR. 

questi this man , questi 

costui . . ..this man ... .„costoro 

questo ......this .♦......., questi 

FEM. SING. FEM . PLUE . 

questa(l) i.,.. this woman.. ............ queste 

costei this woman costoro 

2. The second sort comprehends those which point 
out persons or things near the person addressed ; as the 
following. 

MAS. SING. MAS. PLUR. 

cotesti (2) this man cotesti 

cotesto this cotesti 

codesto(3) this codesti 

FEM SING. FEM. PLUR. 

cotesta this woman coteste 

codesta .„ this woman codeste 

3. The third sort comprehends those which point out- 
persons or things distant from the speaker and the per- 
son addressed ; viz. — 

MAS. SING. MAS. PLUR. 

quegli .....that man quelli 

colui. that man .coloro 

quello that quelli 

cio that 

FEM. SING. FEM. PLUR. 

quella that woman or thing ....quelle 

colei that woman coloro 



(1) Instead of questo, questa, &c. esto, esta, esti, este, have been 
used by the poets, but never by prosaic writers. 

(2) Instead of cotesti, cotesta, coteste, &c. we find cotestui, cotestei, 
cotestoro ; but they are obsolete, and not to be used by those that 
desire to speak correctly. 

(3) Codesto, codesta, codesti, codeste, are not so frequently used as 
cotesto, cotesta, &c. 



OF DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 101 



Observations. 

1. All these pronouns are declined with the indefinite 
article, di, a 9 da ; as — 

MAS. SING. FEM. SING. MAS. PLUR. FEM. PLUR. 

Nom. questo qu&ta questi queste this 

Gen. di questo di questa ..di questi ...di queste.... of this 

Dat. a questo a questa ...a questi. ...a queste ....to this 

Ace. questo questa questi queste this 

AbL da questo da questa. .da questi ..da queste ...from this 

2. Questo >, cotesto, questa, cotesta, quella, as adjectives, 
may lose their last vowel, and admit of an apostrophe, 
before words beginning with a vowel ; and you may 
say— 

questo, or quest' uomo this man 

questa, or quest' invenzione this invention 

cotesto, or cotest' ignorante ....that ignorant man 

cotesta, or cotest' orma '.....that footstep 

quella, or quell' intenzione that intention 

But if a substantive masculine begins with an o, the 
masculine pronouns must drop their o ; and if the sub- 
stantive feminine begins with an a, the feminine pronouns 
must likewise drop their a ; as — 

quest' onore, and not questo onore this honour 

Cotest' ordine, and not cotesto ordine that order 

quell' anima, and not quella anima that soul 

3. The plurals of the adjective pronouns may be 
subjected to the same rules as the singular, without com- 
mitting a fault ; but we advise the student not to drop 
their last vowel, unless that vowel is the same as that 
with which the substantive begins ; as — 

questi onori these honours 

quest' ignorant! these ignorant men 

quelle anime those soids 

quell' emozioni those emotions 

cotesti angeli those angels 

cotest' invidiosi those envious men 



102 OF DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 

4. QucIIo is put entire before words beginning with 
s followed by a consonant, and is changed into quegli 
for the plural ; as — 

quelio SCOgllO that rock 

quegli scogli those rocks 

5. Quelio loses its last syllable h 9 before substantives 
beginning with any consonant but s followed by 
another consonant, and makes quc\ quel, qucl/i, in the 
plural ; as — 

quel padrone that master 

quel cavallo that horse 

quel capitiino that captain 

que' padroni those masters 

quei cavalli those horses 

quelli capitani those captains 

6. Qucllo loses its last vowel at pleasure, and takes an 
apostrophe in the place of it, before words beginning 
with any vowel but o. In that case, qucllo is to drop its 
o without exception ; and in the plural it makes quegli, 
which, is not to drop the vowel, unless the substantive 
begins with an i. Ex. 



^& A 



quelio, or quell' angelo that angel 

quell', not quelio onore that honour 

quegli, not quegl' animi those minds 

quegl', not quegli invidiosi those en vious people 



Section IV. 

OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

Relative pronouns are such as relate to some word or 
phrase spoken of before, which is called the antecedent. 

In Italian these pronouns are two, che 9 and quale ; to 
which may be added, cui 9 chi (1). 

(l) Some grammarians have added cui and chi; but we think 
that cui cannot be called a relative by itself, as it is nothing but a 



OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 103 



Declension of Relatives. 

Che, referring to persons or things, is declined with 
the indefinite article, di, a 9 da. 

Nom. che ivho, that, which 

Gen. di cui ( 1 ) . . . of whom, of that, of which 

Dat. a cui to whom, to that, to which 

Ace. che, cui.... whom, that, which 

Abl. da cui from whom, from that, from which 



Che, and all its derivatives, are of both genders and 
numbers ; as, Vuomo che amo, the man whom I love ; 
la donna che m'ama, the woman who loves me. 



Che, referring to a whole phrase spoken of before, is 
declined with the definite article il, and is always of the 
masculine gender. 

Nom. il che which 

Gen. del che of which 

Dat. al che to which 

Ace. il che which 

Abl. dal che from which 

"Example. 

Egli e partito da Londra, il che me displace molto, he 
left London, which I am very sorry for. 

Quale is declined with the definite article, il, for the 
masculine, and la, for the feminine ; and makes quali in 
the plural, for both genders. 



derivation of che in its oblique cases, as will be seen in its declen- 
sion ; and chi cannot be called a relative absolute, because it has 
no antecedent ; but it is a mixture of both ; for when we say, chi 
dice questo, turn dice la verita, chi expresses both the relative and the 
antecedent ; as, he or she who says so, does not speak the truth. 
However, we have inserted them for the sake of facility. 

(1) Instead of di cui, a cui, da cui, we find in good authors, di che, 
a che, da che ; but they are not to be imitated. 



104 OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

Singular, Masculine, and Feminine. 

Nom. il. or la quale who, that, which 

Gen. del, or della quale ..of whom, of that, of which 

Dat. al, or alia quale to whom, to that, to which 

Ace. il, or la quale whom, that, which 

Abl. dal, or dalla quale ..from whom, from that, from which 

Plural. 

Nom. i, or le quali who, that, which 

Gen. de', or delle quali ...of whom, of that, of which 

Dat. a', or alle quali to whom, to that, to which 

Ace. i, or le quali who, that, which 

Abl. da', or dalle quali ..from whom, from that, from which 

Chi (1), signifying he who, she who, &c, is declined 
with the indefinite article, di, a, da. 

Nom. chi he, she, they, who 

Gen. di chi of him, her, them, who 

Dat. a chi ....to him, her, them, who 

Ace. chi..... him, her, them, who 

Abl. da chi from him, her, them, who 

Chi, here, is employed only for persons, and stands 
for quegli che, or, il quale. 



Observations. 

1. Che may drop the last letter, and take an apos- 
trophe, before any vowel. Ex. Che io, or, cK io amw, 
which I love ; che aveva, or, cK aveva, which he had. 



% Quale may drop the last vowel, and take an apos- 
trophe, before a noun beginning with a vowel, only in 
the singular. In the plural it is never to be abridged ; 
as — 

il quale amava, or il qual* amava who loved 

la quale andava, or la qual* andava.. who went 

i quali amavano, not i qual* who loved 

le quali andavano, not le qual' who went 



(l) I say chi, signifying he who, &c, because when it signifies who 
interrogatively, it belongs to the interrogative pronouns. 



OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 105 

3. Quale may drop its last vowel without taking an 
apostrophe, in the singular only, and before a word 
beginning with a consonant ; as — 

nel qual di on which day 

la qual donna • which ivoman 

Quali may be abridged or syncopated thus, quai, or 
qua! ; as — 

i quai figliuoli which children 

le qua' donne which women 

But the latter is not frequently used. 



Section V. 

OF INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 

These pronouns are called interrogative, because they 
serve to ask questions. They are, chi, che, and quale, 
and are declined with the indefinite article, di, a, da, as 
follows : — 

Nom. chi... .....who che what 

Gen. di chi ....of who77i di che of what 

Dat. a chi to whom a che ,...,».to what 

Ace. chi whom che what 

Abl. da chi . . . .from whom da che from what 

SINGULAR, PLURAL. 

Nom. quale quali which 

Gen. di quale di quali of which 

Dat. a quale a quali to which 

Ace. quale quali which 

Abl. daquale da quali .from which 

Observations. 

1. Che (1) may or may not lose its last vowel before 
a word beginning with a vowel, and take an apostrophe ; 
as — 

Che, or ch'uomo e colui? . . . .what man is he? 

Che, or ch'e questo ? what is this ? 

(1) Che, in poetry, has sometimes dropped he, but it is not to be 
imitated. 

F3 



106 OF INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 

2, Before a word beginning with an h 9 che is not 
abridged in prose ; as— 

Che ha egli ? what is the matter with him ? 

Che han fatto? what have they done? 

The student, however, will do better to make use of 
che entire, before a vowel or a consonant. 

3. Quale may or may not lose its last vowel in the sin- 
gular, and take an apostrophe at pleasure, before words 
beginning with a vowel : before words beginning with a 
consonant, it takes no apostrophe ; as — 



Qual'e la casa? which is the i 

Qual di questi due? which of these two? 

Di qual onor parlate? which honour do you speak of? 

A qual casa appartiene ? .... which house does it belong to? 

See the first examples of quale, underneath. 

4. Chi is used in speaking of persons of both genders 
and numbers ; as — 

B. 3. 9. Disse Beltramo : e chi e la damigella ? Bel- 
tram said : and who is the young lady ? 

B. 4. 10. // qual brancolare, sentendo lefemmine die 
desie erano, cominciarono a dire, chi e la ? The ladies who 
were awake hearing the noise, said, who is there ? 

Che is used in speaking of persons and things, and is 
of both genders and numbers. Ex. 

B, 7. 9. Or che avesti, chefai cotal viso f Now, what 
is the matter with you— why do you make such faces ? 

Quale is used in speaking of persons and things, is of 
both genders, and makes quail in the plural. Ex. 

B. 10. 8. Qual amore, qual ricchezza, qual par entado 
avrebbe i sospiri di Tito con tarda efficaciafatti a Gisippo 
nel cuor sentire, se non costei ? What love, wealth, or 
affinity, could have wrought so effectually upon the heart 
of Gisippus, as to make him feel the pangs of Titus, but 
this (friendship)? 



OF IMPROPER PRONOUNS. 



107 



B. 10. 8. Quali stati, quai meriti avrebbon fatto Gi- 
sippo non curdr di perdere i suoi parenti per soddisfdre 
air amico, se non costei ? What greatness, what merits, 
could make Gisippus heedless of disobliging all his rela- 
tions to satisfy his friend, but this (friendship) ? 



Section VI. 



OF IMPROPER PRONOUNS. 

These pronouns are also called indefinite, and indeter- 
minate, because they express their subjects in an indefinite 
or general manner. 

Some grammarians have divided these pronouns into 
different classes ; but as we think that such a division 
would only tend to puzzle the student without much 
benefit, we shall put them down alphabetically, and speak 
of them in the same order. 



alcuno somebody 

alquanto some, a little 

altrettali such ones 

altrettanto ....as much 

altri some, others 

altro other 

altrui others 

checchesia ....whatsoever 
chicchesia .... whosoever 

chiunque whoever 

ciascuno every one 

ciascheduno *.*every one 

cotale such one 

cotanto so much 

nessuno nobody 

niuno nobody 



nullo no one 

ogni every 

ognuno every one 

parecchj several 

quale ivhich, some 

qualche any 

qualcheduno....sow£ one 

qualcuno some one 

qualsisia.... ) ..whatever, or 
qualsivoglia > ..whoever, or 
qualunque ) ..whatsoever 

quanto as much 

tale ^..such 

tanto so much 

tutto all 

verdno .....no one 



Observations. 

1. Some of these pronouns have no plural, others have 
no singular, and others have both singular and plural, as 
we shall presently see. 



108 OF IMPROPER PRONOUNS. 

2. Some of these pronouns are also adverbs, and as 
such, we shall speak of them in their respective places. 

3. The following pronouns, taken as adjectives, have 
genders and numbers. 

MAS. S. FEM. S. MAS. P. FEM. P. 

alcuno alcuna alcuni alcune 

alquanto alquanta alquanti alquante 

altrettanto ....altrettanta altrettanti altrettante 

altro altra altri altre 

cotanto... c ....cotanta cotanti cotante 

quanto quanta quanti quante 

tutto tutta tutti tutte 

4. These pronouns are declined with the indefinite 
article, di, a, da. Altro, however, taken in a determined 
sense, has the definite article; as, gli altri uomini, le 
altre donne, the other men, the other women. 

5. All these pronouns may, in the singular, lose their 
last vowel, and take an apostrophe, before words beginning 
with a vowel. Alcuno, however, may lose its last vowel 
before words beginning either with a vowel or a con- 
sonant, but not in the feminine. 



alcun uorao ....any man 
alcuna casa, not 

alcun casa .. ..any house 



alcun libro some book 



6. The following pronouns* whether taken as sub- 
stantives or adjectives, are susceptible of genders only, 
but have no plural. 

MAS. FEM. MAS. FEM. 



ciascheduno ..ciascheduna 

ciascuno ciascuna 

nessu.no nessuna 

nullo nulla 

niuno niuna 



ognuno ognuna 

qualcuno qualcuna 

qualcheduno ....qualcheduna 
veruno veruna 



These pronouns are declined with the indefinite article, 
di 9 a, da. 

All these pronouns, in the masculine, may lose their 
last vowel o, before words beginning either with a vowel 



OF IMPROPER PRONOUNS. 109 

or a consonant ; but before feminine nouns, when they 
drop their last vowel a 9 an apostrophe is to be inserted 
in its place. 

ciascun uomo. .every man ciascun libro ....every book 

ciascun' orma .every footstep ciascun' arme .. ..every iveapon 

7. The following pronouns are indeclinable, admit of 
both genders, have no plural, and are declined with di, 
a 9 da. 

chicchesia ..^.chiunque ogni qualche 

qualsisia ., .. ..qualsivoglia qualunque 

These pronouns are never to drop any of their last 
vowels ; and though ogni and qualche are sometimes 
found abridged, we think it is better not to imitate those 
writers who have taken such a liberty. 

8. The following pronouns have no singular. 

altrettali t parecchj 

Altrettali is of both genders, and is declined with the 
definite article, gli, and le ; and parecchj makes parecchie, 
for the feminine, and is declined with di, a, da. 

9. The following pronouns are of both genders^ admit 
of a plural, and are declined with or without the article. 

cotale cotali 

quale quali 

tale tali 

These three pronouns may or may not lose their last 
letter in the singular ; in the plural, they may be synco- 
pated or abridged thus : — 

cotali cotai .cota' 

quali quai .., qua' 

tali tai ta' 

The last method, however, that is, the abridged, is 
rather affected, and is better not to be imitated. 



110 OF IMPROPER PRONOUNS. 

10. Altri is of both genders, and of both numbers, 
and is declined thus : — 

Nom. altri 

Gen. d' altri, or d'altrui 

Dat. ad altri, or ad altrui 

Ace. altri, altrui 

Abl. da altri, or da altrui 

Altrui is never used in the nominative case, and is 
also indeclinable ; that is, it may be used with or without 
di 9 a 9 da. 



OF VEPvBS. Ill 

CHAPTER V. 

OF VERES. 

Section L 

OF THE NATURE OF VERBS IN GENERAL. 

A verb, verbo, is a word which signifies to be, to do, 
or to suffer ; as, Io sono, I am ; Io amo, I love ; Io 
soiw amatol I am beloved. 

Verbs in Italian are of two kinds, personal and imper- 
sonal. 

The personal is that which has three different persons, 
and is divided into — 

active attivo 

passive passivo 

neuter neutro 

reflective reflettivo 

reciprocal reciproco 

A verb active expresses an action, and necessarily 
implies an agent, and an object acted upon ; as, to love, 
amare ; I love God, Io amo Dio. 

A verb passive expresses a passion or a suffering, or 
the receiving of an action, and necessarily implies an 
object acted upon, and an agent by which it is acted 
upon ; as, to be loved, essere amato ; Peter is loved by 
Anna, Pietro e amato da Anna. 

iV verb neuter expresses neither action nor passion, 
but being, or a state of being ; as, I am, io sano ; I 
sleep, io dormo ; I sit, io seggo. 

A verb reflective expresses an action in which the 
agent acts, and is acted upon by himself. I love myself, 
io mi amo ; he knows himself, egli si conosce. 

A verb reciprocal is when the agent acts, and is acted 
upon by another agent ; and as two persons are required 



112 OF VERBS. 

to act and to be acted upon, this verb has no singular. 
Feter and Anthony beat each other, Pietro ed Antonio 
si bdttono ; that is, Peter beats Anthony, and Anthony 
beats Peter. 

A verb impersonal is that which has not all the per- 
sons required to conjugate a verb. They are of three 
sorts — 

1. Those of the first are called impersondli rigorosi, 
impersonal absolute ; as, tuona, it thunders ; balena, it 
lightens. 

2. Those of the second sort are called, mezzo imper- 
sonal^ half impersonal ; which, though they may be used 
personally, are used impersonally in the third person ; as, 
mipidce, I like; mi pare, it seems to me, &c. 

3. The third sort contains impersonals formed by 
verbs personal used in the third person with si before 
it ; as, si dice, it is said ; si fa, it is done. 

To the signification of the verb are superadded the 
designation of number, by which it corresponds with the 
numbers of the noun, either singular or plural ; of per- 
son, by which it corresponds with the several personal 
pronouns ; of mood, by which the action, passion, or 
being is expressed; and, lastly, of time, by which it 
represents the action, passion, or being, as, present, 
past, *and future. In a verb, therefore, are to be con- 
sidered — 

numbers numeri 

persons persone 

moods modi 

tenses .tempi 



Section II. 

OF NUMBERS AND PERSONS. 

Verbs have two numbers, the singular and the 
plural: as, I speak, io parlo; we speak, noi parliamo. 



OF NUMBERS AND PERSONS. 113 

Each number has three persons. 

Singular. 

First person I love io amo 

Second thou lovest tu ami 

Third he loves egli ama 

Plural 

First person we love noiamiamo 

Second you love voi araate 

Third they love £glino amano 

Thus, the verb in Italian, throughout all its tenses, 
varies its endings to express, or agree with, different 
persons of the same namber ; as, I speak, io parlo ; thou 
speakest, tu parli ; he speaks, egli parla, &c. ; and also, 
to express different numbers of the same person ; as, tu 
parli, thou speakest ; voi parlate, you speak ; egli parla, 
he speaks; eglino pdrlano, they speak. 

As Italian verbs have different terminations, accord- 
ing to the difference of persons and numbers, they, by a 
peculiarity belonging to the language, may, in some 
cases, be used without the personal pronouns ; thus, in 
saying amo, I love ; amiamo* we love ; instead of io amo, 
not amiamo, the student who is acquainted with the 
terminations of the verb, is not at a loss to find that amo 
is the first person singular, and amiamo the first person 
plural. 

Section III. 

OF MOODS. 

Mood, or mode, is a particular form of the verb, 
shewing the manner in which the being, action, or pas- 
sion, is represented. 

There are, in Italian, four moods of verbs. 

I. Pinfinito the infinitive 

II. lindicativo the indicative 

III. il soggiontivo the subjunctive 

IV. Pimperativo the imperative 



114 OF MOODS. 

We begin to reckon the moods by the infinitive, because 
all the other moods are derived from the infinitive. 

The infinitive mood expresses a thing in a general and 
unlimited manner, without any distinction of number or 
person ; as, amare, to love ; andare, to go ; perdere, to 
lose. 

The indicative mood simply indicates or declares a 
thing, or asks a question ; as, egli ama, he loves ; egli e 
andato, he is gone ; or, ama egli ? does he love ? e egli 
andato f is he gone ? 

The subjunctive mood represents a thing, under a 
condition, motive, wish, supposition, command, fear, &c. 
and is preceded by a conjunction, expressed, or under- 
stood, and attended by another verb. Egli gode di per- 
fetta salute, benclie paja ammaldto, he enjoys perfect 
health, though he seems sickly. Paja is the subjunctive 
governed by benclie, a conjunction. Io non credo sia 
partito, I do not think he is gone away. Sia is the 
subjunctive governed by the verb credo, and the con- 
junction che which is understood, thus, io non credo 
che siapartito. 

The imperative mood is used for commanding, ex- 
horting, entreating, or permitting ; as, vditene, begone ; 
Jute attenzione ai vostri affdri, mind your business ; pre- 
ghiumo Iddio, let us pray to God ; anddte in pace, go in 
peace. 

Though this last mood derives its name from its inti- 
mation of command, it is used on occasions of a very 
opposite nature, even in the humblest supplications of an 
inferior being, to one who is infinitely superior ; as, ddcci 
oggi il nostro pane quotididno, e rimetti a noi i nostri 
debiti, give us this day our daily bread, and forgive us 
our trespasses. 

Some grammarians have reckoned five moods instead 
of four, but we have been satisfied to exhibit such only 
as are obviously distinct, and necessary to answer our 
purposes. 



OF THE TENSES. 115 

Section IV. 

OF THE TENSES. 

Tense, tempo, being the distinction of time, admits of 
present, presente ; past, passdto ; future, futuro. 

The present tense represents an action or event, as 
passing at the time in which it is mentioned. 

The past tense represents an action or event, as elapsed 
at the time when it is mentioned. 

The future expresses an action or event as yet to come, 
either with or without respect to the precise time. 

As every mood is susceptible of tenses, we shall speak 
of each of them separately. 

The infinitive has three tenses in Italian, the present, 
the past, and the future, as we observed before ; but 
without any precise determination of time. 

The present is simply amdre, to love; vedere, to 
see. The past is formed by the infinitive, avere, and the 
participle of any verb; as, av'ere amdto, to have loved ; 
avere creduto, to have believed. And the future is 
formed by putting the verb, essere per, to be ; avere a, 
or ad, or da, to have, before any infinitive; as, sono per 
anddre, I am to go ; ho a dire^ I have to say. 

The indicative has likewise three tenses, present, past, 
and future. 

The present tense is — 

io amo I love 

tu leggi .....thou readest 

egli dice he says 

noi andiamo we go 

voi credete you think 

eglino vedono they see 

As there are some critics, whom we would rather call 
cobblers than literary men, that have had something to 
say about our explanation of the tenses, we will row lay 
down some examples to give authority to what we 
advanced in our small Grammar. 



116 OF THE TENSES. 

1. This tense is used in speaking of an action or event, 
as passing at the time in which it is mentioned. 

B. 1 0. 8. Io conosco qudnto possono leforze d 'amore, 
I know how powerful love is. 

B. JO. 8. I vostri rammarichii piu dafuria, che da 
ragione incitdti .... vitiiperano, mdrdono, e dannano 
Gisippo, your complaints, arising more from rage than 
reason.... re vile, offend, and condemn Gisippus. 

2. The present tense is likewise used in speaking of 
actions continued, with occasional intermissions, to the 
present time. 

B. 5. 8. Ed avviene, che ogni Verier dX in su quest'' or a, 
io la giiingo qui, e qui ne fo lo strdzio che vedrdi ; and it 
happens, that every Friday about this time I overtake 
her here, and torment her, as you will see. Giungo and 
fo are the actions taking place with the intermission of a 
week ; that is, from one Friday to another. 

3. This tense is substituted for the past in animated 
narrations. 

Albergati. Nov. Esce veloce da quella tomba, corre 
al paldgio ; riort e piu incerto il suo passo, non e piu 
dubbia la via, non e piil oscura la notte ; he went quickly 
out of that tomb, ran to his palace; his steps were no 
longer uncertain, the way was no longer doubtful, night 
was no longer dark. Esce, corre, and e, are all in the 
present tense, instead of the past, usci, corse, era. 

4. The present tense is used in speaking of a future 
action, as in the following cases : — 

B. 10. 9. Quello che mi dite di fore, sifaccia tosto, 
perciocche domdne e Tultimo d\ che io debbo essere aspet- 
tdto ; what is to be done, I beg you will have it done 
immediately, for to-morrow will be the last day of my 
being expected. In like manner we say, il mese, la set- 
timdna, Vanno, la primavera, Testate, Vautunno, V in- 
verno, che viene, next month, week, year, spring, summer, 
autumn, winter, instead of ilmese che verrd, la settimdna 
che verm, &c. 



OF THE TENSES. 117 

The past tense represents an action as elapsed at the 
time when it is mentioned, and is expressed in Italian 
five different ways, viz. — 

I. preterito imperfetto .first imperfect tense ( 1 ) 

II. preterito indeterminate) second imperfect tense 

III. preterito determinate perfect tense 

IV. trapassato imperfetto .first pluperfect tense 

V. trapassato perfetto second pluperfect tense 

I. II preterito imperfetto », the first imperfect tense, is— 

io aveva I had 

tu amavi thou lovedst 

egli parlava he spoke 

noi dicevamo we said 

voi facevate you did 

eglino scrivevano they wrote 

1. This tense in Italian represents the action or event, 
as remaining unfinished at a certain time past. 

B. 4. 1. E veggendo* die il padre , per I amor che egli 
le portava, poco cur a si dava di piii maritarla, ?ie a lei 
onesta cosa pareva il richiedernelo, ecc. ; and, seeing that 
her father, on account of the love he bore her, took no 
care to marry her again, and it seeming not so modest 
in her to ask it, &c. 

B. 3. 1. Io lavorava un loro giardino, bello e grdnde, 
e oltre a questo, andava alcuna volta al bosco per le legne, 
attigneva aequo,, e faceva cotdli altri servigetti ; ma le 
donne mi davano si poco, che io non ne poteva appena 
pagare i calzdri; I had the care of a large garden ; and, 
besides that, I used sometimes to go to the forest for 
wood, I drew water, and did other services for them ; 
but my wages were so small, that they would scarcely 
find my shoes. 

% This tense is used in speaking of the actions, dis- 
positions, and good or bad qualities of persons or things 



(1) As the English language has only one imperfect, and one 
pluperfect, we have distinguished them, in this grammar, by first 
imperfect, second imperfect, first pluperfect, second pluoerfect. 



118 OF THE TENSES. 

no longer existing at the time in which they are men- 
tioned. 

B. 5. 1. La moglie, die Isabella avea nome, his wife, 
who was called Isabella. 

Bembo. Era questo giardino vdgo molto, this garden 
was very pleasant. 

B. 5. 10. La moglie era una giovane di pelo rosso, 
his wife was carroty. 

B. 5. 10. Una vecchia die pareva sdnta Verididna che 
da beccdre alle serpi, an old woman who appeared St. 
Veridiana, feeding serpents. 

B. 3. 4. II quale assdi giovane, e bello della persona 
era, who was a very young and handsome man. 

Aveva, era, pareva, first imperfect, not ebbe, fu, 
parve ; for in the latter case it would mean an action 
which took place only once. 

3. This tense is used in speaking of actions inter- 
rupted. 

B. 1. 3. Mentre stavan cendndo, venne il marito, 
while they were at supper, her husband came. 

B. L Z. 5. Egli mcontrb la Catella die veniva, he met 
with Catella, who was coming. 

Stavan and veniva are actions interrupted. 

II. II preterito indeterminate, the second imperfect 
tense, is — 

io amai I loved 

tu dicesti thou saidst 

egli parlo he spoke 

noi andammo we went 

voi scriveste you wrote 

eglino finirono they finished 

1. This tense represents an action or event past and 
finished a long time since, though the precise time is not 
denoted by the verb itself ; or, otherwise, it represents 
an action or event happening only once, without leaving 
any traces of it behind, when the verb is accompanied 
with an adverb of time past. 

B. 5. 8. E dietro a lei vide venire un cavalier bruno, 
and he saw a knight dressed in black following her. 



OF THE TENSES. 119 

B. 5. 8. Ma il cavaliere che questo vide, gli grido di 
lontano, but the knight who saw it, cried from afar to 
him. 

Vide and grido show that the actions are past and 
finished, and no traces ©f them left behind. 

B. 10. 9. E il seguente d\ fece il Saladinjure in una 
gran sola un bellissimo, e ricco letto 9 the following day 
the Saladin had a most beautiful and rich bed put up in 
a grand drawing-room. 

B. 3. 1 . Uno di la Badessa il vide, one day the Abbess 
saw him. 

B. 4. 6. Se iofossi voluto anddre dietro cH sogni 9 io non 
ci sarei venuto 9 non tdnto per lo tuo, qudnto per uno^ che 
io altresi questa notte passdta ne feci ; if I had any faith 
in dreams, I should not have come here ; and not So 
much for the sake of your^s, as of one I had last night. 

Fece, vide, fec% and notjuceva, vedeva,facevo, because 
they are here accompanied with il seguente di 9 ivno di 9 
notte passata 9 all of which are adverbs of time, thai 
require this tense instead of the first imperfect. 

III. Ilpreterito determinato 9 the perfect tense, is — 

io ho avuto I have had 

tu sei stato thou hast been 

egli e amato he is loved 

noi abbiamo veduto we have seen 

voi avete scritto you have written 

eglino hanno parlato they have spoken 

1. This tense refers to what has taken place a little 
while before. 

B. 3. 5. Che ti pare ? Hottf io bene la promessa ser- 
vata ? Messer 9 no : voi m 1 avete fatto parldr con una 
stdtua di mdrmo. What do you think of it ? Have I 
not kept my promise ? No, Sir ; you have made me 
speak to a marble statue. 

B. 3. 5. Ed or volesse iddio che io fatto Vavessi 9 perciib 
che voi avete comperato, ed io non V ho venduto ; and 
now, would to heaven that I had done so ; because you 
have obtained it by purchase, without my selling it to 
you. 



120 OF THE TENSES. 

Hotf io servata, voi vri avetefatto, avete comperato, ho 
venduto, show the actions thai have taken place but a little 
while before, as the promise was made just before. 

2. This tense denotes a thingvthat is past in such a 
manner that there is still actually remaining some part 
of the time to slide away, wherein we declare that the 
thing has been done ; and it is generally accompanied 
with an adverb of time. » 

B. 3. 5. Anzi £ ho sempre amato, e avuto caro innanzi 
ad ogni altro ; ma cosi m' e convemito fare per paura 
d' altrui ; I always loved you far beyond every other 
person ; but that behaviour was necessary, for fear of 
other people. 

B. 3. 6. Io 9 misera me, gia sdno otto anni, f ho piii 
die la mia vita amato. Alas ! for these eight years 
have I loved you more than my very life. 

In the first example, ho amato, e convenuto, show that 
the actions are passed ; but a part of the time still 
remains, that is, she still loves him, and is still afraid. 
Likewise, ho amato, in the second example, shows that 
the eight years are not yet elapsed. 

3. In general, the perfect tense may be used when- 
ever the action is done at a time, the period of which is 
still continuing when we speak ; and such a time may 
be a century, a year, a month, a week, a day, or any 
number of centuries, years, &c. 

Per tre secoli intieri non c'emai stato alcun cangiamento nelle leggi. 
For three whole centuries no alteration has taken place in the laws, 
L'ho veduto due volte quest' anno, i" saw him twice this year. 
Non sono stato all' opera questa settimana. i" have not been to the 
opera this week. 

With regard to questa mattina, this morning, it is to 
be observed, that if the morning is already elapsed, we 
use the second imperfect with questa mattina ; but if the 
morning is not elapsed when we speak, the perfect tense 
is used. Thus^ if we speak in the afternoon, we say, 
lo vidi stamattina, I saw him this morning. If we 



OF THE TENSES. 121 

speak iii the same morning, we say, Z'ho veduto sta- 
mattina. 

IV. II trapassato imperfetto, the first pluperfect tense, 
is — 

io aveva avuto I had had 

tu eri amato thou wast loved 

egli aveva veduto he had seen 

noi avevamo dato .. .. i we had given 

voi avevate detto you had said 

eglino avevano scritto they had written 

1. This tense represents an action, not only as past, 
but also, as done prior to another action which is about 
to begin. 

JB. 3. 8. Qudndo i monaci che detto avevan mattutino, 
corsono cola, e conobbero la voce di Ferondo ; the monks 
who had just ended their morning service ran thither, 
and recognised the voice of Ferondo. 

B. 3. 8. Era Ferondo tutto pdllido, come colui, che 
tanto tempo era stato senza vedere il cielo ; Ferondo was 
quite pale, as he had been so long confined, without see- 
ing day-light. 

In these examples, avevan detto shows an action done 
before corsono ; and era stato, before he came out of the 
tomb. 

This tense, however, is subject to the same rules as 
the first imperfect, always observing the rule as above, 
namely, of using it in speaking of an action done just 
before another action is to begin. 

V. II trapassato perfetto, the second pluperfect tense, 
is — 

io ebbi avuto I had had 

tu fosti amato thou wast loved 

egli ebbe veduto he had seen 

noi avemmo dato ..we had given 

voi aveste detto ..you had said 

eglino ebbero scritto they had wntten 

1. This tense is used as the second imperfect, and is 
generally accompanied with poiche, quando, dopo che, 
subito che, &c. 

a 



122 OF THE TENSES, 

B. 3. 8. Or a in cost fdtti ragionamenti e in simili...* 
fu tenuto Ferondo da died mesi ; in this manner was 
Ferondo kept there about ten months. 

B. 3. 8. Ma poiche la gente alqudnto si fu rassicurata 
con lui, domanddndolo di indite, cose, ... ei rispondeva ; 
but when people were convinced of his really being 
alive, and had asked him questions, he answered. 

B. 3. 5. Ando nella camera alia donna, e quando detto 
1'ebhe come agevolmente poteva il palqfreno guadagndre, 
le impose ; he went to his wife's room, and when he had 
told her how easily he could get the horse ? he enjoined 
her. 

The future represents an action or event as yet to 
come, and is expressed two ways in Italian, as well as in 
English, viz. — 

1 fut uro imperfetto .first future 

2 futuro perfetto secondfuture 

I. II futuro imperfetto, the first future, is — 

lo avro I shall have 

tu sarai thou shalt be 

egli fara he shall do 

noi vedremo we shall see 

voi andrete you shall go 

eglino daranno %...they shall give 

1. This tense is used to express future actions. 

B. 3. 8. E come, disse la donna, vi pot? a anddre vi- 
vendo ? Disse I abate ; eg li convien ch 7 e' 1 muoja, e cost 
Sandra ; And what ! go there alive ? said the lady. He 
must die, answered the abbot, and thus he shall go 
thither. 

2. This tense is made use of, instead of the present, 
in doubtful actions. 

Gold. Ver. Am. Eh! via, cdro amico, parra a voi 
che non vi voglia bene ; Come then, dear friend, perhaps 
you think she does not like you. 

Gold. Pam. (Jevre.) Che le avete fdtto che piange? 
(Bonjil.) Un male assdi grdnde ; le ho dondto un anello* 



OF THE TENSES. 123 

(Jevre.) Dunqne piangera, (Pallegrezza (Bonfil.) No 9 
pidnge per verecondia. What have you done to make 
her cry ? — I did something very bad, I presented her 
with a ring. — She, then, cries for joy. — No, she cries 
through bashfulness. 

Jn these two examples, parra and piangera are two 
actions, shewing doubt in the speaker. In like manner, 
if any one knocks at the door of a room, those who are 
within say to each other : Chi mai sard ? Who can it 
be ? Or, if any one goes out, he who remains at home, 
says : Dove sard anddto colui ? Where can he be gone ? 
can, in both examples shewing doubt, is put in the 
future. 

II. Ilfuturo perfetto, the second future, is — 

avro avuto I shall have had 

sarai stato thou wilt have been 

avra amato he will have loved 

avremo detto we shall have said 

avrete fatto you will have done 

avranno scritto they will have written 

1. This tense intimates that the action will be fully 
accomplished at or before the time of another future 
action or event. 

B. 2. 1. Fdtevi dire qudndo, e dove io gli tdgliai la 
borsa, ed io vi diro quello eke io avro fatto ; order them 
to say when and where I robbed them, and I will tell 
you what I have done. 

% This tense is used instead of the perfect tense, in 
doubtful or contradictory actions. 

Gold. (Beatrice} Ha detto a me che To chiamdva a 
Venezia una lettera di suo zio, ed ora dice che suo zio 
sta per rnorire. (Florindo.) Avro detto che ho da anddre 
per una lettera che trdtta di mio zio. (B.) He told me 
he was to go to Venice on account of a letter sent to him 
by his uncle ; and now he says his uncle is on his death- 
bed. (F.) Perhaps I have said that I am to go for a 
letter which concerns my uncle, Avrd detto for ho detto. 

g2 



124 OF THE TENSES. 

In like manner, if we are told that such a person is come 
where we are, without knowing the cause of his coming, 
we say, perche rnai sara venuto ? Wherefore is he come ? 
Or, if any one were to ask another to guess where he 
has been, the answer is, Jbrse sarai andato alV Opera- 
perhaps you have been to the Opera ; sarai, for sei. 

The indicative, then, has eight tenses, namely — 

I. il presente the present tense 

II. il preterito imperfetto the first imperfect tense 

III. il preterito indeterminate) ..the second imperfect 

IV. il preterito determinate ..,. the perfect tense 

V. il trapassato imperfetto ....the first pluperfect tense 

VI . il trapassato perfetto the second pluperfect tense 

VII. il futuro imperfetto the first future tense 

VIII. il futuro perfetto the second future tense 

Many other different names have been given to the 
tenses, but not to confuse the learner, we have substi- 
tuted those that are most in use, and approved of by 
good writers. As to the English names, we have made 
use of those in Murray's Grammar ; and with respect to 
il preterito determinato, and trapassato perfetto, which 
the English language comprehends under the name of 
imperfect and pluperfect, the second imperfect, and 
second pluperfect, have been substituted. 

Of the Subjunctive. 

The tenses of this mood express, as the indicative, 
the present, the past, and the future. \ 

The present is — 

io abbia I may have 

tu sia thou mayst be ^ 

egli vegga he may see 

noi andiamo we may go 

voi facciate you may do 

eglino diano they may give 

1. This tense represents a present and future action, 
only by the sense of the sentence. 

B. 8. 9. Mi place die voi mi marinate— I am glad you 
wll get a husband for me. Maritidte here, is future, 



OF THE TENSES. 125 

because the lady who speaks, expects that reward after 
she has cured the king. 

B. 3. 5. Tutta fidta, non voglio che tu creda, che io 
nelV dnima stdta sia quello che nel viso mi sono dimos- 
trdta ; yet, do not imagine that I was as hard hearted as 
I seemed to be. Creda here may be considered as the 
present tense, because it represents an action going to 
take place directly. 

The imperfect likewise represents either a future 
action, or a past one. 

B. 5. 8. E* fdtto fare un grdnde apparecchiamento, 
come se in Francia...anddre volessc.di Ravenna usci ; 
and making extraordinary preparations, as if he were 
going to France, he left Ravenna. Volesse represents a 
future action, as yet to come. 

B. 3. 5. Questa parola pidcgue molto al cavaliere, il 
quale, come che buona opinione avesse della donna^ ancora 
ne laprese migliore ; the knight was much pleased with 
it ; and if he had a good opinion of his lady before, he 
had now a better. Avesse here denotes a past action, as 
the gentleman had a good opinion of his lady. 

The past tense denotes only a past action, and has no 
need of examples. This mood has also two tenses, 
simple and compound, which Buommattei calls passato 
and trapassdto indeterminate) ; but as this name is the 
same as the pluperfect of the indicative, we will call them 
condiziondle semplice and composto. See the conjugation 
of avere, page 129. With respect to the use of the sub- 
junctive, see the Syntax. 

The imperative has only two tenses ; namely — 

The present and the future, which have no first person 
singular. 

The present is — 

abbi tu....... have thou 

sia egli , let Mm be 

facciamo noi let us do 

date voi give you 

vadano eglino..... let them go 



126 OF THE TENSES. 

1. The present tense is used for commanding, exhort- 
ing, or entreating. 

B. 2. 2. Va su 9 e guavdafuor del muro a pie di quest 7 
uscio, chi v* e; go and look over the wall at the door, 
to see if there is any body there. The mistress com- 
mands her maid. 

B. 2. 2. Confortatevi, state lietamente^ voi siete in cdsa 
nostra ; comfort yourself, cheer up : do as if you were at 
home. A lady exhorts a man not to be afraid. 

B. 4. 8. Deh, per Dio, Girolamo, vattene ; for God's 
sake, go away, GiroJamo. A lady begs her lover to go 
away. 

The future is the same as that of the indicative, and 
is likewise used for commanding, exhorting, and praying, 
to do an action, not in the present tense, and quickly, 
but some time after. 

B. 4. 9- Prenderai quel cuor di cinghiale, e fa che tu 
nefdcci una vivandetta ; take that heart of a wild boar, 
and make a ragout with it. 

B. 7. 7. Tu prenderai un huon bastone e andratene al 
giardino .... dirai villania ad Egano, e soneramelo bene 
col bastone ; take a cudgel, and go into the garden .... 
give Egan some hard language, and afterwards cudgel 
him soundly. 

In the above examples, a command, exhortation, or 
entreaty, is evidently implied. 

Modern grammarians have not made mention of the 
future of the imperative ; but in this case we follow the 
example of Buommattei, as we are persuaded that it 
is quite necessary that the learner should be made ac- 
quainted with it. 

Remarks on the Tenses. 

In treating of the tenses, there are two things to 
which attention ought principally to be directed, the 
relation which the several tenses have to one another in 



OF THE TENSES, 127 

respect of time, and the notice which they give of an 
action's being completed, or not completed. 

The present tense and the first imperfect, both of the 
indicative and the subjunctive, as well as the first future, 
may be used either definitely or indefinitely, both with 
respect to time and action. 

When they denote customs or habits, and not indi- 
vidual acts, they are applied indefinitely ; as — 

La religione e la base ffogni virtu — religion is the 
basis of all virtues. Gli antichi Romani avevano un gran 
numero d? iddii — the ancient Romans had a great number 
of deities. lo faro ogni mio sforzo per servirvi — I shall 
do all my efforts to serve you. Pur die sia buono — pro- 
vided it is good. Benctie v } andasse — although he should 
go there. 

In these examples, e, avevano, jhro, sia, andasse, are 
used indefinitely, both with regard to action and time ; 
for they are not confined to individual actions, nor to 
any precise points of present, past, or future time. 

When they are applied to signify particular actions, 
and to ascertain the precise points of time to which they 
are confined, they are used definitely, and are formed 
by the simple tenses of stare, not of essere, and the 
active participles of the verb in question ; as in the fol- 
lowing instances : — 

Io sto scrivendo una letter a — I am writing a letter. 
lo venni quando tu lo stavi Jacendo — -I came when thou 
wast doing it. Credo ctiegli stia scrivendo — I think he 
is writing. Temevo che egli non istesse scrivendo qualche 
lettera — I was afraid he was writing some letter. Se 
staro dormendo, non mi svegliate — if I am sleeping, do 
not awake me. 

In these examples, sto, stavi, stia, istesse, staro, are 
the simple tenses of the verb stare, which in English 
signifies to be. These tenses mark the time ; and the 
gerund or active participle, with which they are accom- 
panied, denotes the action. Thus, if we say sto, we 
mark the present tense without the action ; and by put- 



128 OF AUXILIARY VERBS. 

ting the gerund jacendo, scrivendo, &c. after it, we mark 
both the time and the action. 

The other tenses of stare are not often used in this 
acceptation, and even the first future, of which we have 
given an example, has seldom been employed by good 
writers. 



Section V. 

OF THE CONJUGATION OF PERSONAL VERBS. 

The conjugation, la congiugazione, of a verb, is the 
regular combination and arrangement of its several num- 
bers, persons, moods, and tenses. 

Before we begin to conjugate these verbs, it is neces- 
sary to state that Italian grammarians have generally 
conjugated essere, to be, before avere, to have; but the 
latter being in English used as an auxiliary to the former, 
and, besides, as we are to speak of active before we speak of 
passive verbs, we have thought proper to conjugate first 
avere, and then essere. With respect to the tenses, we 
place the single ones before the compound ; and this 
change we think will render it easier for the student to 
conjugate them. 

Conjugation of Avere, to have. 

Infinitive present . .'. to have avere 

Gerund (l) present .having ..avendo (2) 

Participle had avuto (3) 

Infinitive past to have had ....were avuto 

Gerund past having had avendo avuto 

(1) The gerund in English is also called active participle. 

(2) Avendo, and all gerunds, are changed into infinitives, when- 
ever a preposition precedes them, thus: in having, 'in avere; for 
having, per avere; with having, con avere ; and not in avendo, per 
avendo, and con avendo. 

(-3) Avuto, and all other participles following avere, are indeclin- 
able, that is to say, they do not alter their terminations; as will be 
seen in conjugating avere. These participles, however, will be 
declinable on certain occasions. See Participles. 



OF AUXILIARY VERES. 129 

INDICATIVE. 

Present Tense. 

Sing. I have to ho(l) 

thou hast tu hai 

he has egli ha 

she has ........ella ha 

it has ..........egli, or ella ha 

Plur. we have , noi abbiamo 

you have voi avete 

they have, m eglino hanno 

they have,/, elleno hanno 

First Imperfect Tense. 

Sing. I had io aveva (2) 

thou hadst tu aveVi 

he had egli aveva 

Plur. we had noi avevamo 

you had voi avevate 

they had eglino avevano 

Second Imperfect Tense. 

Sing. I had io e'bbi 

thouhddst tu avesti 

he had egli ebbe 

Plur. we had noi avemmo (3) 

you had voi aveste 

they had eglino ebbero (4) 

(1) Ho, hai, ha, hanno, have been spelt, both by writers and 
grammarians, without the h; and an accent inserted upon their first 
vowel, thus : o, di, a, anno ; but that method, though used by several 
writers of note, has never met with general approbation ; therefore 
we advise the learner to use L 

(2) This person has been always terminated in a; custom, how- 
ever, has changed it into o; and though we do not find it in Boc- 
caccio, or any other ancient writers, we would not blame the learner 
for using the termination in o, as that distinguishes the first from 
the third. If, however, io is not dropped, aveva must be used. The 
same may be said of the first person of the imperfect of all verbs in 
general. The first and third person singular, and the third plural, 
of this tense, may lose their last v ; thus, io avea, egli avea, eglino 
aveano : however, if the first person singular is made to end in o, 
the syncopation cannot take place. 

(3)Avemo has been sometimes used for avemmo. Not to be imitated. 
(4) Kbbono and ebbeno have been sometimes used for ebbero* 
Not to be imitated. 

g3 



130 OK AUXILIARY VERBS. 

First Future Tense. 

Sing. I shall have io avrd(i) 

thou wilt have tu avrai 

he will have egli avra 

Plur. we shall have noi avremo 

you will have voi avrdte 

they will have eglino avranno 

Perfect Tense. 

Sing, I have had io ho avuto 

thou hast had ..tu hai avuto 

he has had egli ha avuto 

Plur. ive have had noi abbiamo avuto 

you have had .voi avete avuto 

they have had eglino hanno avuto 

First Pluperfect Tense. 

Sing. I had had.... io aveva avuto 

thou hadst had tu avevi avuto 

he had had egli aveva avuto 

Plur. we had had noi avevamo avuto 

you had had voi avevate avuto 

they had had eglino avevano avuto 

Second Pluperfect Tense. 

Sing. I had had ;...... io <£bbi avuto 

thou hadst had tu avesti avuto 

he had had egli ebbe avuto 

Plur. we had had noi avemmo avuto 

you had had voi aveste avuto 

they had had eglino ebbero avuto 

Second Future Tense. 

Sing. I shall have had io avro avuto 

thou wilt have had tu avrai avuto 

he will have had egli avra avuto 

Plur. we shall have had ,. noi avremo avuto 

you will have had voi avrete avuto 

they will have had ..eglino avranno avuto 



(l) All the persons of this tense have been frequently used by 
some writers without the v, thus : aro, ami, ard,&c; but they are 
not to be imitated. The first and third persons singular of the 
future must always have an accent on their last vowel. 



W AtrxiLiAnt- VER'fcS. 131 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present Tense. 

Sing. I may have . ... 8 io abbia 

thou may st have .. tu abbia (I) 

he may have .... egli abbia 

Plur. ite may have noi abbiamo 

you may have voi abbiate 

they may have .. .. ., .. . eglino abbiano 

Imperfect Tense. 

Sing. I might have ...io avessi (2) 

thou mightest have tu avessi 

he might have .........egli avesse 

Plur. we imght have , ....noi avessimo 

you might have voi aveste 

they might have ..eglino avessero 

Conditional Simple. 

Sing. (3) I should have io avrei (4) 

thou shouldst have tu avresti 

he should have egli avrebbe (5) 

Plur. zue should have noi avremmo 

you should have voi avreste 

they should have eglino avrebbero 

Put nvuto to these three tenses, and you will find 
their compounds, thus : — 

I may have had ..* io abbia avuto, &c. 

/ might have had io avessi avuto, &c. 

/ should have had io avrei avuto, &c. 

(l) Abbia may also be changed into abbi, only in the second person 
lingular. 
' (2) This tense is very often rendered in English by could, shoidd, 
■would have. 

(3) It is quite indifferent to use either could, would, or should, m 
this tense. 

(4) This tense, like the future, has been used by authors of note, 
without the letter v, thus : arei, aresti, arebbe, &c; or with another 
e added to the above, thus : averei, averesti, averebbe, &c. Neither 
way is to be imitated 

(5) Avrebbe may also be changed into avria, and avrebbero into 
avr'ebbono, avnano, and avrieno ; all of which maybe used without 
impropriety. 



13& OF AUXILIARY VERBS. 



IMPERATIVE. 

Present Tense. 
Sing. No first person 

have thou ..abbi tu (l) 

let him have abbia egli 

let us have » abbiamo noi 

have you abbiate voi 

let them have abbiano eglino 

Future Tense. 

Sing. No first person 

thou shalt have.. .......... ..awH tu 

he shall have , avra egli 

Plur. we shall have .avremo noi 

you shall have .avrete voi 

they shall have avranno eglino 



Observations. 

To conjugate a verb interrogatively, is to put the 
pronoun personal after it, as they do in English ; but 
sometimes the pronouns are dropped, and the interroga- 
tion is only distinguished by the inflexion of the voice, 
to learn which, the assistance of a master is required. 

The English particle not is rendered by non ; which 
being accompanied with the verb, is to be put between 
the pronoun personal and the verb, in Italian. Ex. 

Sing. / have not io non ho 

thou hast not tu non hai 

he has not egli non ha 

, Plur. we have not noi non abbiamo 

you have not voi non avete 

they have not eglino non hanno 

But if there be a relative or a conjunctive pronoun 
(the situation of which being immediately before the 



(1) This person and the second person singular of all imperatives, 
are changed into infinitives, when accompanied with a negative,- 
thus : Have thou not ? Non avere. 



OF AUXILIARY VERBS. 133 

verb), non is put between these pronouns and the per- 
sonal pronouns. Ex. 

Sing. I have it not ...io non Pho 

thou hast them not tu non glihai 

he has it not egli non Pha 

Plur. we have them not noi non le abbiamo, &c. 

There are more negatives, such as nothing, none, no- 
body ; which being united to the verb, are resolved by 
non niente, non alcuno, non nessuno. Non, then, is put 
before the verb, and wienie, alcuno, &c. after it. Ex. 

I have nothing non ho niente 

thou hast none non ne hai alcuno 

he has nobody non ha nessuno 

Avere, joined with several substantives, forms dif- 
ferent modes of speaking ; as, avere freddo, to be 
cold; avere caldo, to be warm; all of which may be 
found with analogous examples in our Dictionary of 
Peculiarities. 



Conjugation of Essere, to be. 

Infinitive present ...£b be essere 

Gerund present ....being essendo 

Participle been stato (l) 

Infinitive past to have been.... essere stato 

Gerund past having been ....essendo stato 

INDICATIVE. 

Present Tense. 

Sing. I am. , io sono 

thou art tu sei (2) 

he is egli e 

she is ella e 



(1) Stato, and all other participles following essere, are declinable; 
that is to say, they are to agree with their nominative case, thus : 
if the nominative case is masculine, stato is used; if feminine, stata ; 
if masculine plural, stati ; if feminine, state. See the Participle. 

(2) Sei is also spelled se\ Both good. 



124 OF AUXILIARY VEIiBS. 

Present Tense. 

Plur. we are noi siamo (l) 

you are voi siete (2) 

they are eglino sono 

First Imperfect Tense. 

Sing. I was b io era 

thou wast i....tu eri 

lie was egli era 

Plur. we ivere ...... noi eravamo (3) 

you were voi eravate(3) 

they were eglino erano 

Second Imperfect Tense. 
Sing. I was.... io fui 

thou wast tu fosti (4) (5) 

he was ..egli fu 

Plur, we ivere noi fummo 

you were voi foste 

they were eglino furono 

First Future Tense. 

Sing. I shall be io sard 

thou wilt be tu sarai 

he will be egli sara 

Plur. we will be , ....noi saremo 

you will be voi sarete 

they shall be eglino saranno 

Perfect Tense. 

Smg. I have been io sono (6) stato (7) 

thou hast been tu sei stato 

he has been ^..egli e stato 

(1) Instead ofsidmo, semo is also found in good authors. Not to 
be imitated. 

(2) Instead of siete, sete is often found. Not to be imitated. 

(3) Instead of eravamo and eravate, eramo and erate are sometimes 
used in a familiar style. Not to be imitated 

(4) Fosti and foste have often been spelt fasti and f teste. Not to 
be imitated. 

(5) Many authors have made/osft* tu coalesce into one word, thus, 
fostu; and avesti tu into avestic. Not to be imitated. 

(6) If a lady speaks, she must say sono stata, ero stata,fui siata, &c. 

(7) It is to be observed, that the verb essere has no need of avere b 
as in English; and that to form the compound tenses, stato. its 



OF AUXILIARY VERBS* 135 

Perfect Tense. 

Plur. we have been noi siamo stati 

you have been..,, voi siete stati 

they have been « .. .. ..eglino sono stati 

First Pluperfect Tense. 

Sing I had been ........io era stato 

thou hadst been.... tu eri stato 

he had been egli era stato 

Plur. we had been noi eravamo stati 

you had been .....voi eravate stati 

they had been eglino erano stati 

Second Pluperfect Tense. 

Sing. I had been (l) ...io fui stato 

thou hadst been.. tu fosti stato 

he had been ....egli fu stato 

Plur. we had been noifummo stati 

you had been voi foste stati 

they had been ■. eglino f urono stati 

Second Future Tense. 

Sing. I shall have been io sar6 stato 

thou wilt have been tu sarai stato 

he will have been ..egli sara stato 

Plur. we shall have been noi saremo stati 

you will have been voi sarete stati 

they will have been eglino saranno stati 



participle, is to be put to the simple tenses of the same verb, thus : 
instead of saying io ho stato, I have been, the student is to say io 
sono stato, as if it were / am been. Io era stato h I had been, and not 
io aveva stato ; and so on of all other tenses. 

(1) A certain pedagogue has condemned us for inserting this 
tense, saying it did not exist in the verb essere ; but we suppose he 
has never read any good authors, or if he has, it was without atten- 
tion. Here are some examples, out of the hundreds which we 
could set down, to confute his assertions. 

B. 1,0.2. L abate poi alqudnto fu stato — when the abbot had been 
some time. And a^rain : B. 5, 9. La quale, poiche pikna di lagrime 
ed amaritudine fu stata alquanto — who, after having wept, and been 
some time afflicted. 



136 QF AUXILIARY VERBS. 



SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present Tense. 

Sing I may be io sia 

thou may st be.,, tu sia (1) 

he may be egli sia 

Plur. we may be noi siamo 

you may be voi siate 

they may be eglino siano (2) 

Imperfect Tense. 

Sing. I might be io fossi (3) 

thou mightest be tu fossi 

he might be egli fosse 

Plur. we might be noi fossimo 

you might be voi foste 

they might be eglino fossero 

Conditional Simple. 

Sing. I should be io sarei (4) 

thou shouldst be tu saresti 

he should be egli sarebbe(5) 

Plur. we should be noi saremmo 

you should be voi sareste 

they should be eglino sarebbero (5) 

Put stato to the above tenses, and you will find their 
compounds, thus : — 

I may have been ....io sia stato, &c. 

I might have been io fossi stato, &c. 

I shoidd have been io sarei stato, &c. 



(1) The second person may be changed into sii. Both good. 

(2) Siano may also be changed into sieno. Both good. 

(3) Some authors have used iofussi, tufussi, eglifusse, noifussimo, 
fuste,fussero, instead of the above. Not to be imitated. 

(4) Sarei may lose its last letter, and take an apostrophe, when- 
ever io follows it, thus — sare'io. 

(5) Sarebbe and sarebbero may be changed into saria, sarebbono, 
sariano, and sarieno. All good. 



OF AUXILIARY VERBS. 137 



IMPERATIVE. 

Present Tense. 

Sing. No first person 

be thou sii tu (l) 

let him be sia egli 

Plur. let us be siamo noi 

be you , siate voi 

let them be siano eglino (2) 

Future Tense. 

Sing. No first person 

thou shalt be sarai tu (3) 

he shall be sara egli 

Plur. we shall be saremo noi 

you shall be sarete voi 

they shall be saranno eglino 



Observations on avere and essere. 

The verb to be, being impersonally used in English, 
is rendered in Italian avere \ or essere , when the particle 
there, by which it is accompanied, is expressed by ci, or 
vi, which is put before the third person, both singular 
and plural ; as— 

Present Tense. 

,7 • i ci e, or vi e 

there is { . , ' . , 

( ci ha, or vi ha 

there are \ ci Sono? or vi S . on ° 

'*"' ( ci hanno, or vi hanno 



(1) Sii may change into sia and sie especially when a pronoun 
conjunctive follows ; thus, szeti, siami, &c. 

(2) Siano may change into sicno. Both good. 

(3) This person may lose its last letter, whenever a relative or 
some other pronoun follows, and is joined with it thus ; sardne tmo s 
thou shalt be one of them. 



138 OF AUXILIARY VERBS. 

Imperfect Tense. 

there was 5 cj era, or vi era 

( ci aveva, or vi aveva 

, 7 ( ci erano, or vi erano 

there were .. ., < . ' 

( ci avevano, or vi avevano 

And so on of all the other tenses. 

It is to be observed, that ci may drop the i and take 
an apostrophe before a word beginning with any vowel 
but a and o ; but vi may lose the i before any vowel, 
without exception. Ex. 

B. 8. 3. Qudnte rniglia ci ha ? Maso rispose, hdccene 
piil di milldnta ; how many miles are there ? Maso an- 
swered, there is an infinite number. 

B. 3. 1. Egli ci avra mille modi di fare si, die mai 
non si sapra ; there will be a thousand ways of managing 
in such a case, that nobody will ever be the wiser. 

B. 3. 4. La dove ce n' e una^ che e molto corta y where 
there is one, which is very short (a way). 

B. 3. 3. Egli ci sono delle dltre donne, there are some 
women. 

All the verbs are conjugated either with avere, or 
essere, as in English ; that is, the active with avere, the 
passive with essere ; but as, in Italian, there are many 
verbs that are not conformable to the English, in giving 
lists of all those that differ from them, we shall affix a 
mark to those that are conjugated with essere. 



Section VI. 

CONJUGATION OF REGULAR VERBS. 

Some grammarians have made four conjugations of 
Italian verbs, by reckoning those ending in ere short, 
for one, and those in ere long, for another. Others 
have made five, by reckoning those in ire, that end in o 



OF REGULAR VERBS. 139 

in the first person of the present tense, for one, and those 
that end in isco in the same first person of the present 
tense, for another. This, however, is not our intention, 
as so many conjugations are apt to create confusion ; 
and as constant practice has led us into the most proper 
method of arranging them, we say that the 

Infinitives of Italian verbs are terminated three several 
ways, by which three conjugations are formed. 

The first consists of verbs ending in are, such as, 
parlare, to speak ; portare, to bring ; donare, to make a 
present of. 

The second contains verbs ending in ere, both short 
and long ; such as, temere, to fear ; credere, to believe ; 
vender e, to sell. 

The third comprehends verbs ending in ire ; such 
as, capire, to understand ; jinire, to finish ; pulire, to 
clean. 

First Conjugation. 

The regular verbs, the infinitives of which end in 
are, are terminated, throughout all their tenses, as 
follows : — 

Infinitive, are Gerund, ando Participle, ato 

INDICATIVE. 

Present Tense. 
o i a .iarno ate ano 

Imperfect Tense. 
avo avi ava avamo,...avate ....avano 

Second Imperfect Tense, 
ai ,..asti .... 6 ammo ....aste ......arono 

First Future Tense, 
ero erai ...,era eremo....erete eranno 



140 OF REGULAR VERBS. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present Tense, 
i i i iamo iate ino 

Imperfect Tense, 
assi assi asse assimo .. ..aste assero 

Conditional, 
erei eresti...erebbe..eremmo ,.ereste....ere'bbero 

IMPERATIVE. 

Present Tense, 
i a iamo ate ino 

Change are of the infinitive into the above-mentioned 
terminations, and you will find the simple tenses of the 
first conjugation, without exception. As to the com- 
pound tenses, they are formed by putting the participle 
to the simple tenses of avere. Ex. 

Infinitive present ...to bring portare 

Gerund present ....bringing portando 

Participle brought portato 

Infinitive past to have brought., were portato 

Gerund past having br ought.. avendo portato 

INDICATIVE. 

As the student is now acquainted with the personal 
pronouns, and as Italians do not always make use of 
them, (see page 113), we have thought proper to omit 
them in conjugating the verbs ; we will use them, how- 
ever, when the terminations of the different persons are 
alike, such as in the subjunctive, present and imper- 
fect, &c. in which their being omitted would produce 
ambiguity. 



OF REGULAR VERBS. 141 

Present Tense. 

Sing. I bring io p6rt-o 

thou bringest ..tu port-i 

he brings egli port-a 

Plur. we bring noi port-iamo 

you bring voi port-ate 

they bring eglino port-ano 

First Imperfect. 

Sing. / brought port-avo 

thoubroughtest port-avi 

he brought port-ava 

Plur. we brought port-avamo 

you brought port-avate 

they brought * port-avano 

Second Imperfect. 

Sing. I brought port-ai 

thou broughtest port-asti 

he brought port-6 

Plur. we brought . port-ammo 

you brought port-aste 

they brought port-arono 

First Future Tense. 

Sing. I shall bring (l)port-ero 2) 

thou shalt bring *....port-erai 

he shall bring port-era (2) 

Plur. we shall bring port-eremo 

you shall bring port-erete 

they shall bring port-eranno 

Perfect Tense. 
Sing. I have brought ho portato 

thou hast brought hai portato 

he has brought ha portato 

Plur. we have brought abbiamo portato 

you have brought avete portato 

they have brought hanno portato 



(1) The future and conditional of the verbs of the first conjuga- 
tion, are never to be terminated in aro and arei ; and if examples to 
the contrary are met with, they are not to be imitated. 

(2) It is to be observed that the first and third persons singular 
of the future of all verbs, must have an accent on their last vowel, 
as above. 



142 OF REGULAR VERBS. 



First Pluperfect Tense. 

Sing. I had brought avevo portato 

thou hadst brought avevi portato " 

he had brought aveva portato 

Plur. we had brought avevamo portato 

you had brought avevate portato 

they had brought avevano portato 

Second Pluperfect Tense. 

Sing. I had brought ebbi portato 

thou hadst brought avesti portato 

he had brought ebbe portato 

Plur. we had brought avemmo portato 

you had brought aveste portato 

they had brought ebbero portato 

Second Future. 

Sing. I shall have brought avro portato 

thou shalt have brought avrai portato 

he shall have brought avra portato 

Plur. we shall have brought avremo portato 

you shall have brought avrete portato 

they shall have brought avranno portato 



SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present Tense. 

Sing. I may bring io port-i 

thou 7ii ay st bring tu port-i 

he may bring egli port-i 

Plur. we may bring port-iamo 

you may bring port-iate 

they may bring port-ino 

Imperfect Tense. 

Sing. / might bring io port-assi 

thou mightst bring tu port-assi 

he might b/ing egli port-asse 

Plur. we might bring port-assimo 

you might bring port-aste 

they might bring port-assero 



OF REGULAR VERBS. 143 

Conditional. 

Sing. I should bring port-erei (I) 

thou shouldst bring port-eresti 

he should bring port-erebbe (2) 

Plur. we should bring port-eremmo 

you should bring port-eivste 

they should bring port-erebbero (3) 

Put portato to the simple tenses of the auxiliary 
verb avere, and you will find the compounds of the 
above three tenses, thus : — 

I may have brought io abbia portato, Szc. 

I might have brought io avessi portato, &c. 

I should have brought io avrei portato, &c. 

IMPERATIVE. 

Present Tense. 
Sing. No first person 

bring thou port-a 

let him bring port-i 

Plur. let us bring port-iamo 

bring you port-ate 

let them bring port-ino 

As the future of the imperative is like the first future 
of the indicative, in conjugating the verbs, we will omit 
it, as we think it sufficient to have conjugated it with the 
auxiliary verbs avere and essere. 

Remarks on verbs in are. 

When are, of the infinitives of the first conjugation, is 
preceded by c or g 9 such as care and gare ; before all 



(1) The first person singular of this tense, preceding the personal 
pronoun io, may drop the i, and take an apostrophe, thus ; por- 
tere* io. 

(2) The third person singular maybe changed into ria 9 thus; 
ameria, doneria porteria. 

(5) The third person plural may be changed into porterebbono, 
portenano. 



144 .OF REGULAR VERBS. 

the terminations above mentioned beginning with e or i 9 
an h is to be put, to harden the sound of c or g. This 
happens to be in the present and future of the indicative, 
in the present of the subjunctive, and the conditional 
and also the imperative ; as — 

Toccare, to touch. 

Ind. pres. I touchy Sec tocc-o, hi, a, hiamo, ate, ano 

First imp* / touched, fyc tocoavo, avi, ava, avamo, avate, 

avano 
Sec. imp. I touched, tyc tocc-ai, asti, 6, ammo, aste, . 

arono 
First fut. I shall touch, $c .. . .tocc-herd, herai, hera, heremo, 

herete, heranno 
Subj. pres. I may touch, fyc tocc-hi, hi, hi, hiamo, hiate, 

hino 
Imperfect. I might touch, tyc. ..tocc-assi, assi, asse, assimo, 

aste, assero 
Conditional. I should touch, $c ..tocc-herei, here'sti, herebbe, 

heremmo, hereste, herebbero 
Imperative, touch thou tocc-a, hi, hiamo, ate, hino 

Pregare, to pray. 

Ind. pres. I pray, fyc ..... ..preg-o, hi, a, hiamo, ate, ano 

First imp. I prayed, fyc preg-avo, avi, ava, avamo, avate, 

avano 
Sec. imp. I prayed, fyc -.. ..preg-ai, asti, 6, ammo, aste, arono 
First fut. I shall pray, #c..preg-hero, herai, hera, heremo, 

herete, heranno 
Subj. pres. I may pray, #c..preg-hi, hi, hi, hiamo, hiate, hino 
Imperfect. I might pray .....preg-assi, assi, asse, assimo, aste, 

assero 
Conditional. I should pray.... preg-hev6\, heresti, herebbe, he- 
remmo, hereste, herebbero 
Imperative, pray thou preg-a, hi, hiamo, ate, hino 

Observe, that verbs in ciare and glare lose the i in the 
future and conditional, &c. 

Cacciare, to drive. 

Future. I shall drive cacc-erd, erai, era, eremo, erete, 

eranno 
Conditional. I should drive.... cacc erei, eresti, ere'bbe, eremmo, 

ere'ste, erebbero 



OF REGULAR VERBS. 145 

Mangiare 9 to eat. 

Future. / shall eat mang- erd, erai, era, eremo, erete, 

eranno 
Conditional. I should eat mang-erei, eresti, erebbe, erem- 

mo, ereste, erebbero 

All verbs whose infinitives end in are, except a few, 
which will be found in the irregular ones, are conjugated 
as the above. Respecting the present tense, as there are 
some which are pronounced short and some long, we 
will insert a list of all of them at the end of the 
grammar. 



SECOND CONJUGATION. 

The regular verbs, of which the infinitives end in ere, 
are terminated throughout all the tenses as follows: — 

Infinitive ere Gerund endo Participle uto. 

INDICATIVE. 
Present Tense. 
o i e iamo ete ono 

First Imperfect Tense, 
evo ....evi ....eva evamo evate evano 

Second Imperfect Tense, 
ei esti....e emmo este erono 

First Future Tense, 
erd erai....era eremo erete eranno 



SUBJUNCTIVE. 
Present Tense, 
.a a iamo iate ano 

Imperfect Tense, 
.e'ssi ....esse essimo este essero 



Conditional. 

erei .. ..eresti ..erebbe ...eremmo .. ..ereste .. ..erebbero 

H 



146 OF REGULAR VERBS. 

IMPERATIVE. 

Present Tense, 
i.. a iamo ete .ano 

Change ere of the infinitives into the above-mentioned 
terminations, and you will find the simple tenses of the 
second conjugation without exception ; as to the com- 
pound tenses, they are formed by putting the participle 
to the simple tenses of the verb avere. Ex. 

Infinitive present do fear temere 

Gerund present .fearing temendo 

Participle .feared temuto 

Infinitive past to have feared.. avere temuto 

Gerund past having feared ..avendo temuto 

INDICATIVE. 

Present Tense. 

Sing. I fear tem-o 

thou feared tem-i 

he fears tem-e 

Plur. we fear.. tem-iamo 

you fear tem-ete 

they fear tem-ono 

First Imperfect Tense. 

Sing. I feared tem-evo 

thou fearedst tem-e vi 

he feared tem-eva 

Plur. we feared ... tem-evamo 

you feared tem-evate 

they feared tem-evano 

Second Imperfect Tense. 

Sing. I feared tem^ei(l) 

thou fearedst tem-esti 

he feared tem-e 

Plur. toe feared ....\ tem-emmo 

you feared tem-este 

they feared tem-erono 

(1) The first and third persons singular, and the third plural, 
make also temetti, temette > temettero. 



•OF REGULAR VERBS 147 



First Future Tense. 

Sing. I shall fear. tem-ero 

thou wilt fear tem-erai 

he will fear tem-era 

Plur. we shall fear , ..tem-eremo 

you will fear., .... tem-ere'te 

they will fear tera-eranno 

Perfect Tense. 

Sing. I have feared ho tem-uto 

thou hast feared hai temuto 

he has feared ha temuto 

Plur. we have feared ....abbiamo temuto 

you have feared avete temuto 

they have fear ad hanno temuto 

First Pluperfect Tense. 

Sing. / had feared ave vo temuto 

thou hadst feared avevi temuto 

he had feared aveva temuto 

Plur. we had feared avevamo temuto 

you had feared avevate temuto 

they had feared avevano temuto 

Second Pluperfect Tense. 

Sing. I had feared ebbi temtito 

thou hadst feared avesti temuto 

he had feared ebbe temuto 

Plur. wp had feared avemmo temuto 

you had feared aveste temuto 

they had feared ebbero temuto 

Second Future Tense. 

Sing. / shall have feared avro temuto 

thou shalt have feared avrai temuto 

he shall have feared avra temuto 

Plur. we shall have feared avremo temuto 

you shall have feared avrete temuto 

they skallhave feared avranno temuto 

h2 



148 OF REGULAR VERBS* 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present Tense. 

Sing. I may fear io tem-a 

thou may st fear tu tern- a 

he may fear egli tem-a 

Plur. we may fear tem-iamo 

you may fear tem-iate 

they may fear tem-ano 

Imperfect Tense. 

Sing. I might fear io tem-e'ssi 

thou mightest fear tu tem-e'ssi 

he might fear egli tem-esse 

Plur. we might fear tem-essimo 

you might fear tem-este 

they might fear tern- essero 

Conditional. 

Sing. I should fear tem-erei 

thou shouldstfear tem-eresti 

he should fear tem-erebbe 

Plur. we should fear tem-eremmo 

you should fear tem-ereste 

they should fear tem-erebbero 

Put temuto to the simple tenses of the auxiliary verb 
avere, and you will find the compounds of the above 
three tenses, thus :-— 

/ may have feared io abbia temuto, &c. 

I might have feared io avessi temuto, &c. 

I should have feared io avrei temuto, &c. 

IMPERATIVE. 

Present Tense. 
Sing. No first person 

fear thou tem-i 

let him fear tem-a 

Plur. let us fear tem-iamo 

fear you tem-ete 

let them fear ... f tem-ano 



OF REGULAR VERBS. 



149 



As the verbs in ere are numerous, and almost all irre- 
gular, we subjoin the following list of those that are 
regular, and consequently conjugated like terriere, with 
remarks for the conveniency of learners; those verbs that 
are not included are irregular. 

In the following list, all verbs marked with an asterisk 
make also etti 9 ette, ettero, in the second imperfect, like 
temere; and the others have only ei, e, erono 9 in the 
second imperfect. Verbs marked with e are conjugated 
with essere ; those marked with ae> may be conjugated 
either with avere, or essere. 



battere to beat 

abbattere ..to throw down 
combattere to fight 

e imbattersi . do meet with 

e rabbattersi..*o meet 
ribattere.. . . to beat again 
strabattere../o torment 

*b£vere to drink 

imbevere .Jo imbibe 
ribevere....*o drink again 
strabevercfo drink hard 

cedere to yield 

cernere to sift 

concernere to concern 
ricernere ...to sift again 

credere to believe 

discredere.. to disbelieve 

erapiere to fill 

adempiere . . to fulfil 
compiere ..to accomplish 
riempiere ..to fin again 

r£cere to vomit 

*fendere to cleave 

*fremere to fret 

# g£mere to groan 



*godere to enjoy 

me'scere ...... to pour out 

mietere to reap 

pascere to feed 

premere ..... Jo press 
ripascere ..to feed again 
spremere ..to squeeze 
ripremere ..to press again 

pendere to hang 

ae dipendere ....depend 

ricevere to receive 

ripetere to repeat 

serpere ........ to creep 

cesplendere ...Jo shine (1) 
ae rlsplendere to shine again (l) 

strl dere to shriek 

tessere to weave 

ritessere....2o weave again 
contessere. . to join 
stessere „..to unweave 
ae succumbere or 

soccombere.fo sink under 

*v£ndere to sell 

rivendere .Jo sell again 



All the above verbs are conjugated like temere. 



(l) These two verbs have no participle. 



150 OF REGULx\R VERBS. 



eaccedere to arrive 

*concedere ...do grant 

*ecc^dere to exceed 

^precedere . . . . to precede 
*procedere . . . . to proceed 
*ric£dere Jo recede 



esuccedere ...Jo succeed 

*assolvere (I) ..to absolve 

dissolvere .Jo dissolve 

*risolvere....fo resolve 

perdere to lose 

*rendere to render 



The above twelve verbs are both regular and irre- 
gular. 



assistere to assist 

<?consistere ,,.Jo consist 
desistere to leave off 



e esistere. ....... to exist 

resistere to resist 



These verbs are irregular in the participle only, which 
makes ito, not uto ; thus, assistito, &c. 

Esigere, to exact, is also regular ; except in the par- 
ticiple, which makes esatto. 



THIRD CONJUGATION. 



Before we proceed, it is necessary to observe, that the 
verbs in ire, of which grammarians have properly formed 
a conjugation, are very few, and mostly irregular; and 
they have excepted more than two hundred of them, 
(which are regular), only because they vary from the 
former ones in the present tense. Hence it comes that 
the student very often mistakes the one for the other, 
saying, ubbide, for ubbidisce, he obeys ; fmoiw^ forfeits- 
cono, they finish, &c. 

To obviate such a difficulty, we have thought proper 
to make a third conjugation of the great number of 
verbs in ire, as above mentioned, and to place the others 
as exceptions ; which alteration we may confidently as- 
sure learners is more easy, and obviously preferable to 
the usual mode. 



( 1 ) Assolvere, dissolvere, risolvere, do not make assolvuto, dissolvuto, 
risolvuto^ but assolutOy dissoluto, risoluto. 



OF REGULAR VERBS. 151 

The regular verbs, of which the infinitives end in 
ire^ are terminated throughout all their tenses as fol- 
lows : — 

Infinitive, ire Gerund, endo Participle, ito 

INDICATIVE. 

Present Tense. 
isco........isci isce. ...... .iamo, ite iscono 

First Imperfect. 
ivo ivi iva ivamo ivate.... ivano i 



Second Imperfect, 
j or ii (l)..isti i immo .iste irono 

First Future, 
ird irai ira iremo irete ....iranno 



SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present Tense, 
isca isca isca iamo iate iscano 

Imperfect, 
issi issi isse issimo iste issero 



Conditional, 
irei iresti irebbe ....iremmo ...,ireste....irebbero 

IMPERATIVE. 

Present Tense. 
isci; isca iamo ite iscano 

Change ire of the infinitives into the above mentioned 
terminations, and you will find the simple tenses of the 
third conjugation without exception. As to the com- 

(l) ii is preferable. 



152 OF REGULAR VERBS. 

pound tenses, they are formed by putting the participle 
to the simple tenses of the verb avere. Ex. 

Infinitive present to finish finire 

Gerund present .finishing finendo 

Participle .finished finito 

Infinitive past to have finished.. avere finito 

Gerund past having finished ..avendo finito 



INDICATIVE. 

Present Tense. 

Sing. I finish fin-isco 

thoufinishest fin-isci 

he finishes fin-isce 

Plur. we finish fin-iamo 

you finish fin-ite 

they finish fin-iscono 

First Imperfect Tense- 
Sing. I finished fin-ivo 

thou finishedst fin-ivi 

he finished fin-iva 

Plur. we finished fin-ivamo 

you finished fin-ivate 

they finished fin-ivano 

Second Imperfect Tense. 

Sing. I finished fin-ii 

thou finishedst „ .. fin-isti 

he finished fin-i 

Plur. we finished fin-immo 

you finished , fin-iste 

they finished fin-irono 

First Future Tense. 

Sing. I shall finish fin-iro 

thou shalt finish fin-irai 

he shall finish fin-ira 

Plur. we shall finish fin-iremo 

you shall finish fin-irete 

they shallfinish fin-iranno 



OF REGULAR VERBS. 153 

Perfect Tense. 

Sing. / have finished ho finito 

thou hast finished t .hai finito 

he has finished ha finito 

Plur. we have finished abbiamo finito 

you have finished avete finito 

they have finished hanno finito 

First Pluperfect Tense. 

Sing. / had finished. ave vo finito 

thou hadst finished avevi finito 

he had finished aveva finito 

Plur. we had finished avevamo finito 

you had finished avevate finito 

they had finished avevano finito 

Second Pluperfect Tense. 

Sing. I had finished £bbi finito 

thou hadst finished avesti finito 

he had finished ebbe finito 

Plur. we had finished avemmo finito 

you had finished ..aveste finito 

they had finished ebbero finito 

Second Future Tense. 

Sing. J shall have finished avro finito 

thou shalt have finished avrai finito 

he shall have finished avra finito 

Plur. we shall have finished avremo finito 

you shall have finished ....avrete finito 

they shall have finished^ .. ..avranno finito 



SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present Tense. 

Sing. I may finish io fin-isca 

thou may st finish tu fin-isca 

he may finish egli fin-isca 

Plur. we may finish fin-iamo 

you may finish fin-iate 

they may finish fin-iscano 

H3 



154 OF REGULAR VERBS. 

Imperfect Tense. 

Sing. I might finish ...... k . ...... io fin-issi 

thou mightest finish ...... ..tu fin-issi 

he might finish B , egli fin-isse 

Plur. we might finish n oi fin-issimo 

you might finish .. ...... ',% ..fin-iste 

they might finish fin-issero 

Conditional. 

Sing. I could finish ....fin irei 

thou shouldst finish ..fin-iresti 

he woidd finish fin -irebbe (l) 

Plur. we could finish fin iremmo 

you should finish fin-ireste 

they woidd Jinish fin-irebbero(l) 

Put jinito to the simple tenses of the auxiliary verb 
avere, and you will find the compounds of the above 
three tenses, thus : — 

/ may have finished io abbia finito, &c. 

I might have finished io avessi finito, &c. 

I should have finished.,,, ..io avrei finito, &c. 



IMPERATIVE. 

Present Tense. 

ing. No first person 

finish thou fin-fsci 

let him finish fin isca 

Plur. let us finish fin-iamo 

finish you fin ite 

let them finish .fin-iscano 

The following verbs are conjugated like^mrtf; those 
marked with e are conjugated with essere, and those 
marked with ae may be conjugated with either. 

(1) Finirehbe may also make Jinina i and finirebbero, finirebbono, 
andjiniriano. 



OF REGULAR VERBS. 



155 



abbellire(l)..£o embellish 

abolire to abolish 

abborrire (2) .to abhor 

e abortire to miscarry 

addolcire to soften 

adempire to fulfil 

aderire to adhere 

aggradire to accept 

alleggerire ...Jo assuage 

ambire to aspire 

aramollire ....to soften 

ammonire ....to admonish 

ammorbidire .to soften 

<&?ammutire.. > , z -, 7 

. |. \ to become dumb 
ae ammutohre $ 

annichilire,. ..to annihilate 

annobilire to ennoble 

4zeapparire (3).. to appear 

^appassire to wither 

appetire to desire 

applaudire ....to applaud 

ardire (4) to dare 

arricchire to enrich 

arrossi re to blush 

arrostire to roast 

arrugginire ...to grow rusty 

assalire (5) ..to attack 

asserire to assert 



assopire to set asleep 

assorbire to absorb 

assordire to deafen 

assortire to sort 

atterrire to affright 

attribuire to attribute 

attristire to grieve 

avvilire to vilify 

balbutire... ) . . 
balbuzzire.r ^""'*'' 

bandire to banish 

bianchire to whiten 

brunire to burnish 

capire to understand 

chiarire to explain 

colorire .. to dye 

colpire ........ to strike 

ecomparire ( 6 )to appear 
compartire.. ..to divide 

compatire ....to pity 

compire to finish 

concepire to conceive 

condire to season 

conferire to confer 

contribuire ..to contribute 
costituire .....to constitute 

costruire to construct 

custodire. to guard 



(1) All verbs in ire are long; that is the accent is to be put on 
the last syllable but one ; or rather on % of ire. 

(2) Abborrire is also irregular in the present, making abborro, 
abborri, abborre, abborrono. 

(3) Apparire makes also appare, in the third person of the pre- 
sent tense, and apparvi, in the second imperfect. 

(4) Ardire makes abbiamo ardire in the first person plural of the 
present of the indicative, subjunctive, and imperative, instead of 
ardianiOy which comes from ardere, to burn. The same may be 
said of the second person plural of the present of the sub- 
junctive, and also of the gerund, which make abbiate ardire, and 
avendo ardire. 

(5) Assalire makes also assalgo, assali, assale, assalgono, in the 
present tense, and assalse in the third person singular of the second 
imperfect. 

(6) Comparire makes also comparsi, in the second imperfect, and 
comparso, in the participle. 



156 



OF REGULAR VERBS. 



definire to define 

differire to differ 

digerire to digest 

diminuire ...do diminish 

esaudire to grant 

eseguire to execute 

esibire to exhibit 

fallire to fail 

favorire to favour 

ferire (1) to wound 

finire to finish 

e fiorire to flourish 

forbire to scrub 

far nir e to furnish 

garantire to warrant 

gemire to groan 

gestir e to gesticulate 

gioire , to enjoy 

gradire to accept 

guarire to cure 

guar nire to garnish 

eimbastardire .do corrupt 

eimbestialire. ..to grow mad 

c imbruttire ....to become ugly 
immorbidire ..to soften 

eimpadronirsi..fc> seize 
ae impallidire ...do grow pale 
impaurire ...do terrify 

e impazzire ...do grow mad 

impedire to hinder 

impiccolire . . do diminish 

e impietrire ...do petrify 

e impigrire to grow lazy 

impoverire.. .do impoverish 

<?impoltronire..fc> groiv idle 
imputridire . ..to putrify 

einacidire to grow sour 

tfinaridire to wither 

inasprire to exasperate 

e incallire to grow hard 

incenerire ...do burn to ashes 
incivilire ....... to grow civil 

*incolorirsi ...do colour 



incoraggire....£o encourage 

e incrudelire.. . . to exasperate 
indebolire ...do weaken 

indurire to harden 

infastidire ...do trouble 
inferire to infer 

einferocire .. ..to become cruel 

influire to influence 

ingagliardire..£o grow brisk 

tfingelosire ...do grow jealous 
ingentilire ...do ennoble 

eingerirsi to meddle 

e ingiallire ...do grow yellow 

eingobbire ...do become hump- 
backed 
ingrandire ...do increase 

e insipidire ...do become insipid 

einsolentire ...do grow saucy 
inserire to insert 

e insuperbire .do grow proud 
inten eri re ...do mollify 
intiepidire ....to cool 
intimidire .... to frighten 

e intisichire ...do grow consump - 
tive 
in vaghire ...do fall in love 

£ inverdire to grow green 

in vigorire ...do strengthen 
inumidire ...do moisten 

£ irrugginire .. ..to rust 

emarcire to rot 

mentire to lie 

muggire do bellow 

munire to furnish 

obbedire to obey 

ordire to warp 

patire to endure 

<»partire to depart 

par torire to bring forth 

pr eferire to prefer 

proibire to proh ibit 

profferire to utter 

proseguire ...do pursue 



(l) Ferire makes &\sofero,feri } fere 9 ferono, in the present tense, 
and feruto in the participle. 



OF REGULAR VERBS. 



157 



pulire to chart 

punire to punish 

e rancidire . . . . to grow rank 

rapire to ravish 

restituire to restore 

e rimbambire . . to grow childish 

eringio venire ..to grow young 

riverire to respect 

ruggire to roar 

sbalordire .. ..to astonish 

e sbigottire ....to despond 

scaturire to flow 

schermire ....to fence 
schemire ....to mock 

e scolorire to fade 

seppellire ....to bury 
smalti re ......to digest 



esmarrire to lose 

smentire to give the lie 

sminuire to diminish 

sorbire to absorb 

e spari re .to disappear 

spedi re to dispatch 

stabilire to establish 

e stordire , to stun 

e stupire to amaze 

e sva nire to vanish 

suggerire ..to suggest 

supplire to supply 

tradire to betray 

tramortire .. ..to faint away 
trasgredire ....to transgress 

ubbidire to obey 

unire to unite 



Section VII. 



OF IRREGULAR VERBS ENDING IN are. 



Andare, dare^Jare, stare, and their derivatives, are the 
only irregular verbs of the first conjugation, which are 
conjugated as follows : — 

Andare. 

Inf. to go... andare I Ger. goiwg....andando 

conjugated with essere | Part, gone ....andato 

Ind. pres. I go, Sfc vo, vai, va, andiamo, andate, vanno 

First imp. I went,fyc and-avo, avi, ava, avamo, avate, 

avano 

Sec. imp. / went, fyc and-ai, asti, 6, ammo, aste, arono 

First tut. I shall go, ^c and-ro, rai, ra, rerao, rete, ranno 

Subj. pres. / may go, fyc. .. ..vada, vada, vada, andiamo, andate 3 

vadano 
Imperfect. I might go, #c.....and-assi, assi, asse, assimo,, aste, 

assero 
Conditional. I should go, fyc. ..and-rei, resti, rebbe, remmo, reste, 

rebbero 
Imperative, go thou, fyc va, vada, andiamo, andate, vadano 



158 OF IRREGULAR VERBS IN are 

Put the participle andato after the simple tenses of 
the verb essere, and you will find their compounds. 



Observations. 

I. Vo may be changed into vado. 

II. The future and conditional of andare are often 
conjugated regularly, thus: — cvndero, anderei : we ad- 
vise the student to use andro, and andre% as above. For 
andrebbero, we find andrebbono ; but it is better to use 
andrebbero. 

III. Instead of andai, ando, andarono, the Flo- 
rentines say, io andetti, egli andette % eglino andetiero. 
Others say, io andiedi, egli andiede, eglino andiedero, 
or andarno ; but we advise the learner to adopt the 
regular way as the most proper, and free from affec- 
tation. 

IV: Andare being conjugated with the verb essere, 
the participle andato is to agree in gender and number 
with its nominative ; thus, if the person speaking, spoken 
to or of is a man, andato is to be used; -if a woman, 
andata ; when men, andati ; women, andate. See Syntax 
of participles. 

V. This verb is sometimes conjugated with the exple- 
tives me ne, te ne^ se ne, ce ne, ve ne, se ne. Thus, me ne 
vado, te ne vai, se ne va, ce ne andiamo, ve ne andate, se 
ne vanno. 

VI. Riandare, to examine, and trasandare, to go 
beyond, are to be conjugated like portare. See page 139. 
ffiandare, however, meaning to go again, is conjugated 
like its primitive, andare. 

VII. Comandare, tramandare, rimandare, though 
they seem to be the derivatives of andare, are derivatives 
of mandare, and consequently they are conjugated like 
portare. See page 139. 



of irregular verbs ix are. 159 



Dare. 
Inf. to give dare Ger. giving dando 



conjugated with avere 



Part, given dato 



Ind. pres. I give, fyc do, dai, da, diamo, date, danno 

First imp. I gave, fyc davo, davi, dava, davamo, davate, 

davano 
Sec. imp. I gave, ^c. diedi, desti, diede, demmo, deste, 

diedero 
First fut. I shall give, $c. ..daro, darai, dara, daremo, darete, 

daranno 

Subj. pres. I may give, fyc dia, dia, dia, diamo, diate, diano 

Imperfect I might give, fyc.dessi, dessi, desse, dessimo, deste, 

dessero 
Conditional. I should give, fycdnrei, daresti, darebbe, daremmo, 

dareste, darebbero 
Imperative. Give thou, fyc da, dia, diamo, date, diano 

Put the participle dato to the simple tenses of the 
verb avere, and you will find all the compound tenses. 

Observations. 

1. For diedi, diede, diedero, we use io detti, egli dette, 
egiino deitero. Both ways are very good. 

2. For diede, diedero, we use die, diedono. 

3. For dessu dessi, desse, &c. io dassi, tu dassi, egli 
dasse, are found in good authors. Not to be imitated. 

4. Dia, dia, dia, diano, are often changed into dea, 
dea, dea, deano. Not to be imitated. 

5. The derivatives of dare are only riddre, to give 
again ; adddre, or addarsi, to addict one's self ; but cir- 
conddre, secondare, ricorddre, and such like, are regular, 
and belong to the first conjugation. 

Fare. 

Fare, properly speaking, ought to belong to the second 
conjugation, as it formerly made facere ; but as this ter- 
mination is no longer in use, we have thought proper to 



160 OF IRREGULAR VERBS IN are. 

follow the method of our predecessors, and put it as an 
irregular verb of the first conjugation. 

Inf. to make fare Ger. making facendo 

conjugated with avere J Part, made fatto 

Ind. pres. I make, fyc fo, fai, fa, facciamo, f&te, fanno 

First imp. I made, ^c facevo, facevi, faceva, facevamo, 

facevate, facevano 
Sec imp. I made, tyc feci, facesti, fece, facemmo, faceste, 

fecero 
First fat. I shall make, fyc.faxb, farai, fara, faremo, farete, 

faranno 
Subj. pres. I may make, #c.. faccia, faccia, faccia, facciamo, 

facciate, facciano 
Imperfect. I might make, fyc.facessi, facessi, facesse, facessimo, 

faceste, facessero 
Conditional. I should make, fyc. farei, faresti, farebbe, faremmo, 

fareste, farebbero 
Imperative, make thou, fyc fa, faccia, facciamo, fate, facciano 

Put the participle fatto after the sitnple tenses of 
avere, and you will find all the compound tenses. 



Observations. 

1. Instead of fo, faccio is often used in prose. Fo is 
better. 

2. For facesti and faceste, festi and feste are used. 
Rather pedantic. 

8. Forfece,fe' is used. Both good. 

4. For fecero, we find feciono andferono. Fecero is 
better. 

5. The derivatives oifare, such as, contrqffure, to 
mimic ; disfare, to undo ; r'fare, to make up again ; 
liquefdre, to melt; strqfdre, to do too much, &c. are 
conjugated like their primitive, fare ; but oifare, to 
smell, is regular, and conjugated like portare* See 
page 139. 



OF IRREGULAR VERBS IN are. 161 

Stare. 



Inf. to stand stare 

conjugated with essere 



Ger. standing stando 

Part, stood stato 



Ind. pres. I stand, fyc sto, stai, sta, stiamo, state, stanno 

First imp. / stood, fyc stavo,stavi, stava, stavamo, stavate, 

stavano 
Sec. imp. I stood, tyc stetti, stesti, stette, stemmo, ste*ste, 

stettero 
First fut. I shall stand, fyc. ..staro, starai,stara, staremo, starete, 

staranno 

Subj. pres. I may stand, fyc stia, stia, stia, stiamo, stiate, stiano 

Imperfect. I might stand, #<?... stessi, stessi, stesse, stessimo, steste, 

stessero 
Conditional. I should stand, 4-c.starei, staresti, starebbe, staremmo, 

stareste, starebbero 
Imperative, stand thou, §c sta, stia, stiamo, state, stiano 

Put stato to the simple tenses of the verb essere, and 
you will find the compound tenses. 

Observations. 

1. Stare, in speaking of the health, signifies to do, or 
be ; as, come state ? how do you do ? or, how are you ? 
By adding di cdsa to it, it signifies to live, or dwell; as 
dove state di cdsa ? where do you live ? Stare signifies 
also to stop. For more particulars, see our Dictionary 
of Peculiarities. 

2. Instead of stetti, stette, stettero, some have made 
use of stiedi, stiede, stiedero. Not to be imitated. 

3. Stea, stea, stea, steano, have been much used 
instead of stia, stia, stia, stiano. Not to be imitated. 

4. Instead of stessi, stessi, &c , some have used stassi, 
stassi, stasse, stassimo, staste, stassero. Decidedly wrong. 

5. Ristdre, to stop, only, is conjugated like stare ; but 
restdre, to remain ; costdre, to cost ; pestdre, to pound, 
and many more which seem derivatives of stare y are 
conjugated like portare. See page 139. 



cadere 
calere 


piacere 
persuadere 


capere 
dovere 
dolersi 
giacere 


potere 
rimanere 
sapere 
sedere 


parere 





162 OF IRREGULAR VERES IN erfr 

Section VIII. 

OF IRREGULAR VERES ENDING IN ere. 

Verbs ending in ere are of two sorts. The first have 
their infinitives long, such as, cadere, giacere, tacere ; and 
the second, short, such as, ridere, scrivere, vivere. 

The irregular verbs ending in ere long are the follow- 
mg, and their derivatives. 

solere 
tacere 
ten ere 
valere 
vedere 
volere 



As the conjugation of these verbs cannot be reduced 
to a general rule, we shall proceed in conjugating them 
one by one ; and to save the learner trouble, we shall 
insert likewise the regular tenses, with this difference, 
that the irregular ones are set down at large, and the 
terminations only of the regular. 

Before we begin to conjugate the irregular verbs in 
ere, let us observe that a verb, being irregular in the 
present tense of the indicative, is so in the present of the 
subjunctive ; and that if it be irregular in the future, it 
is so in the conditional. 

That the first imperfect of the indicative and sub- 
junctive are always regular. 

That the first and the second person plural of the 
present of the indicative, subjunctive, and imperative, 
are never irregular, except the second person plural of 
the imperative only of the verbs avere, dovere, sapere, 
which makes abbiate, dobbiate, sappiate, instead of avete, 
dovete, sapete. 

That the second imperfect of an irregular verb has 
three persons regular, and three irregular. The three 
regular are the second of the singular, and the first and 



OF IRREGULAR VERBS IN ere. 163 

the second of the plural, which are formed according to 
their respective conjugations; and the other three are 
formed by changing the last i of the first person into e 
for the third singular, and into ero for the third plural. 
Ex. 

FIRST SING. THIRD SING. THIRD PLUR. 

I fell cadd-i cadd-e cadd-ero 

I grieved ....dols-i dols-e dols-ero 

I read less-i less-e less-ero 



Cadere. 

Inf. to fall cadere Ger. falling cadendo 

conjugated with essere Part, fallen caduto 

Ind. Pres. I fall, $c cad-o, i, e, iamo, ete, ono 

First Imp. I fell, ^c cad-evo, evi, eva, evamo, evate, 

evano 
Sec. Imp. I fell, S?c caddi, cadesti, cadde, cademmo, 

cadeste, caddero 
First fut. I shall fall, §c cadro, , cadrai, cadra, cadremo, 

cadrete, cadranno 

Subj. Pres. I may fall, fyc cad-a, a, a, iamo, iate, ano 

Imperfect. I might fall, #c....cad-essi, essi, esse, essimo, este, 

essero 
Conditional. I should fall, §c. ..cadrei, cadresti, cadrebbe, cad- 

remmo, cadreste, cadrebbero 
Imperative, fall thou, S?c cad-i, a, iamo, ete, ano 

Put caduto to the simple tenses of the verb essere, 
and you will find all the compound tenses. 

Observations. 

1. The future and the conditional of this verb are 
also regular, thus : — caderd, caderai, &c. caderei, cade- 
resti, &c. The irregular tenses are preferable. 

The derivatives of cadere are — 

accadere to happen 

decadere to decay 

discadere to fall away 

ricadere to fall again 

scadere to became due 

All these verbs are conjugated with essere. 



164 OF IRREGULAR VERBS IN ere. 



Calere. 



Inf. to matter,,., calere 
conjugated with essere 



no Gerund 

Part, mattered, . . . caluto 



This verb being impersonal, has the third person sin- 
gular only, and has neither imperative nor gerund. 



Ind. pres. it matters cale 

First imp. it mattered caleva 

Sec. imp. it mattered calse 

First fut. it will matter carra 

' * may matter caglia 

\ might matter,,,. „ ..calesse 
. it would matter carrebbe 



First fut. it 
Subj. pres. it 
Imperfect, it 
Conditional, it 



Observations, 

1. Calera and calerebbe have been improperly used 
for carra and carrebbe ; as the former come from calare 9 
to let down, and not from calere, as above. The learner, 
therefore, is to make use of carra and carrebbe. 



Capere. 

This verb signifies to contain, and has neither all the 
persons, nor all the tenses, like other verbs. Buom- 
mattei, however, conjugates it throughout all its tenses 
like ternere, except in the present tense of the indicative, 
thus : — cappio, capi, cape, cappiamo, capete, cappiono. 
In the present of the subjunctive, cappia, cappi, cappia, 
cappiamo, cappiate, cappiano ; and in the present of the 
imperative, capi t cappia, cappiamo, capete, cappiano. 
As for the participle, some say it is caputo, others, catto, 
and others, again, capito ; but the latter is the participle 
of capire, to understand. 

As this verb is obsolete, we advise the learner to use 
only the third person singular of the present tense, 
cape, and that of the imperfect, capeva, or capea ; as it 
is these two persons which are often found in good 
authors. 



OF IRREGULAR VERBS IN ere. 165 

Dovere. 



Inf. to owe dovere 

Conjugated vMh avere 



Ger. owing., ....dovendo 
Part, owed dovuto 



Ind. pres. I owe, fyc debbo, debbi, debbe, dobbiamo, 

dovete. debbono 
First, imp, lowed, $c dov-evo, evi, eva, evamo, evate, 

evano 

Sec, imp. lowed, tyc dov-ei, esti, e, emmo, este, erono 

First fut. I shall owe, $c dovro, dovrai, dovra, dovremo, 

dovrete, dovranno 
Subj. pres. I may owe, fyc debba, debba, debba, dobbiamo, 

dobbiate, debbano 
Imperfect. I might owe, #c....dov-essi, essi, esse, essimo, este, 

essero 
Conditional. I should owe, #c...dovrei, dovresti, dovrebbe, do- 

v rem mo, dovreste, dovrebbero 
Imperative, owe thou, $c debbi, debba, dobbiamo, dobbiate, 

debbano 

Put dovuto to the simple tenses of avere, and you 
will have the compound tenses. 

Observations. 

1. The English of the present and imperfect tenses 
of dovere, may also be, / ought, thou oughtesi, &c. 

2. The present also makes io devo, tu devi, egli deve, 
eglino devono, and also io deggio, egli dee, eglino deg- 
giono, and denno. All these are equally good, except 
denno, which is better used in poetry. 

3. The second imperfect makes also, io dovetti, egli 
dovette, eglino dovettero. Not so good as the above. 

4. The present of the subjunctive makes also io deg- 
gia* tu deggia, egli deggia, eglino deggiano ; and also, 
io debbia, egli debbia, eglino debbiano. All good, except 
dzbbia, &c. which is better used by poets. 

Dolersi, or dolere. 

Inf. to grieve... Aotevsl Ger. gn>i?mg....dolendosi 

conjugated with essere Part, grieved ....dolutosi 



166 OF IRREGULAR VERBS IN ere. 

Verbs having the particle si joined with the infini- 
tives, are called reflective, and are conjugated with the 
particles, mi, ti, si, in the singular ; and ci, m, si, in the 
plural, as follows : — 

Inf. pres. I grieve, tyc mi dolgo, ti duoli, si duole, ci 

dogliamo, vi dolete, si dolgono 

First imp. / grieved, fyc mi doleva, ti dolevi, si doleva, ci do- 

levamo, vi dolevate, si dole van o 

Sec. imp. I grieved, fyc. ......mi dolsi, tidolesti, si dolse, ci do- 

lemmo, vi doleste, si dolsero 

First, fut, I shall grieve, $c...mi dorro, ti dorrai, si dorra, ci dor- 

remo, vi dorrete, si dorranno 

Subj. pres. / may grieve, fyc. ..mi dolga, ti dolga, si dolga, ci do- 
gliamo, vi dogliate, si dolgano 

Imperfect. I might grieve, Sfc.mi dolessi, ti dolessi, si dole'sse, ci 

dolessimo, vi doleste, sidolessero 

Conditional. I should grieve, fyc. mi dorrei, ti dorresti, si dorrebbe, 

ci dorremmo, vi dorreste, si dor- 
rebbero 

Imperative, grieve thou, fyc duoliti, si dolga, dogliamoci, dole- 

tevi, si dolgano 

Put doluto to the simple tenses of essere, and you 
will find mi sono doluto, ti sei doluto, si e doluto, ci siamo 
doluti, vi siete doluti, si son doluti, and so on for all the 
other tenses. 

Observations. 

1. In the present of the indicative, we say also, io mi 
doglio, eglino si dogliono. Both ways good. 

2. In the present of the subjunctive, we say also, io 
mi doglia, ti doglia, si doglia, and si dogliano. 

3. In the imperative, si doglia, si dogliano. 

4. Dolere, (not dolersi,) signifies also to ache, or to 
have ache, when it is impersonal, and has only the third 
person, both of singular and plural, &c. 



it aches duole 

it ached doleva 



they ache dolgono 

they ached .. ..doleVano 



my head aches, or ) . i ,/i i , * a . 

J T1 ,i I -j z > mi duole la testa 

1 have the head- ache $ 

my teeth ache or J ^ ^ { d§ tf 

J have the tooth-ache $ ° 



OF IRREGULAR VERBS IN ere. 167 

The derivatives of dolere are ridolersi, to lament 
again ; condolersi, to condole ; ridolere, to have a strong 
smell. 



Giaeere. 



Inf. to lie down.. giaeere 
conjugated with avere 



Ger. lying down..gmcendo 
Part. /<zi/2 down.. ..giaciuto 



Ind. pres. I lie doivn, $c giaccio, giaci, giace, giacciamo, 

giacete, giacciono 
First imp. I lay down, Sfc., giac-evo, evi, eva, evamo, evate, 

evano 
Sec. imp. I lay down, Sec giacqui, giacesti, giacque, giacem- 

mo, giace'ste, giacquero 
First fut. I shall lie down, #c....giac-ero, erai, era, eremo, er£te, 

eranno 
Subj. pres. I may lie down, fyc. . . .giaccia, giaccia, giaccia, giacciamo, 

giacciate, giacciano 
Imperfect. I might lie down, fyc. ..giac-essi, essi, esse, essimo, este, 

essero 
Conditional. I shouldliedown$c... .giac-erei 9 eresti, erebbe, eremmo, 

ereste, erebbero 
Imperative, lie down, Sfc giaci, giaccia, giacciamo, giacete, 

giacciano 

Fut giaciuto to the simple tenses of avere , and you 
will have all the compound tenses. 

Piacere and tacere are conjugated in like manner. 



Observations. 

1. Giaeere has also another participle, viz. — stato a 
giaeere ', which is joined to the tenses of the verb essere, 
and not avere. Thus, instead of io ho giaciuto, tu hai 
giaciuto, egli ha giaciuto, &c. we say, io sono stato* tu 
set stato, egli e stdto a giaeere, &c. 

2. Piacere, signifying to like, is impersonal, when it 
has only the third person both singular and plural ; and, 
as in English, it is always personal, the student is to 
change the English nominative into the dative in Italian, 
and the accusative into the nominative, thus: — I like 



168 OF IRREGULAR VERBS IN ere. 

bread, turn, bread pleases me, mi place il pane ; he 
liked apples, turn, apples pleased him, gli piacevano le 
mele ; and so on of all the other persons and tenses. 

3. For tacqui, tacque, and tacquero, we find io tacetti, 
egli tacette, eglino tacettero, and tacettono : we advise the 
student to use the former, as sanctioned by all gram- 
marians. 

4. Some persons of tacere are sometimes found with 
mi, ti 9 si, &c. before them ; such as, mi tacqui, si tac- 
quero, &c. but we must observe that those particles do 
not belong to tacere ; they are a kind of expletives which 
add grace to the discourse. See expletives. 

All the derivatives of giacere, tacere, piacere, are — 



rigiacere to lie down again 



compiacere . . to please ripiacere. . . to please again 

dispiacere ...Jo displease ritacere ....to be silent again 



spiacere ...to displease 



Parere. 



Inf. to seem parere 

conjugated with essere 



Ger. seeming.... parendo 
Part, seemed ....parso 



Ind. pres. I seem, S^c pajo, pari, pare, pajamo, parete, 

pajono 
First imp. I seemed, $c par-evo, evi, eva, evamo, evate, 

evano 
Sec. imp. I seemed, $c parvi, paresti, parve, paremmo, 

pareste, parvero 
First fut. / shall seem, Sfc. ..parro, parrai, parra, parremo, 

parrete, parranno 
Subj. pres. I may seem, #c....paja, paja, paja, pajamo, pajate, 

pajano 
Imperfect. I might seem, #c...par-essi, essi, esse, essimo, este, 

essero 
Conditional. I should seem, #c..parrei, parresti, parrebbe, parrem- 

mo, parreste, parrebbero 
Imperative, seem thou, fyc pari, paja, pajamo, parete, pajano 

Put parso to the simple tenses of essere, and you will 
have all the compound tenses. 



of irregular verbs in ere, 169 

Observations. 

1. The participle of parere makes also paruto. Not 
so good as parso. 

2. Some bave used paro, paridmo, and pdrono, instead 
of pajo, pajamo, and pqjono ; but they are not to be 
imitated, as the former ones come from pardre, to 
adorn. The same may be said of para, in the sub- 
junctive. 

3. Instead of parvi, parve, parvero, we find pdrsi, 
parse, pdrsero ; but we think that the use of them may 
be left to poets only. 

4. Parere is also impersonal, and then it has dnly the 
third person singular ; as, it seems, pare ; it seemed, 
pareva ; it shall seem, parra ; and so on of the other 
tenses. 

Persuadere. 



Inf. to persuade., persuade re 
conjugated with avere 



Ger. persuadmg.^exsu&dLQTidLO 
Part, persuaded. . . persuaso 



Ind. pres. I persuade, fyc persuad-o, i, e, iamo, ete, ono 

Ftrst imp. I persuaded, fyc persuad-evo, evi, eva, evamo, 

evate, evano 
Sec. imp. I persuaded, fyc . persuasi, persuadesti, persuase, 

persuademmo, persuadeste, per- 

suasero 
First fut. I shall persuade, #<?.... persuad-erd, erai, era, ere mo, 

erete, eranno 
Subj. pres. I may persuade, fyc .. ..persuad-a, a, a, iamo, iate, ano 
Imperfect. I might persuade, ^c.persuad-essi, essi, esse, essimo, 

este, essero 
Conditional. I should persuade, #c..persuad-erei,eresti, erebbe, erem- 

mOj ereste, erebbero 
Imperative. Persuade thou, fyc persuad-i, a, iamo, ete, ano 

Put persuaso to the simple tenses of avere, and you 
will find all the compound tenses. 



170 OF IRREGULAR VERBS IN ere. 



Potere. 



Inf. to be able.... potere 
conjugated with avere 



Ger. being able.... potendo 
Part, been able .. ..potuto 



Ind. pres. I can, fyc posso, puoi, pud, possiamo, potete, 

possono 
First imp. I could, tyc pot-evo, evi, eva, evamo, evate, 

evano 

Sec. imp. I could, fyc pot-ei, esti, e, £mmo, este, erono 

First fut. I shall be able, Src....ipotvb, potrai, potra, potremo, 

potrete, potranno 
Subj. pres. I may be able, fyc possa, possa, possa, possiamo, pos- 

siate, possano 
Imperfect. I might be able, Sfc. ..pot-essi, essi, esse, essimo, este, 

essero 
Conditional. I should be able, #c..potrei, potresti, potrebbe, potrem- 

mo, potreste, potrebbero 

This verb has no imperative. 

Observations. 

1. For poiei, pote, and poierono, some authors have 
used potetti, potette^ potHtero. Not to be imitated. 

2. Beware of saying potero^poierai, &c. poterei, pote- 
resii, &c. for potrd, potrai, &c. potrei, potresti, &c. for 
potero is the future,, and poterei, the conditional, of potare, 
to prune trees. 



Rimanere. 



Inf. to remain.... rimanere 
conjugated with ess ere 



Ger. remaining.. ..rimanendo 
Part, remained. .. ..nmkso 



Ind. pres. I remain, S^c rimango, rimani, rimane, rimani- 

amo, rimanete, rimangono 
First imp. / remained, fyc. .... ;.riman-evo, evi, eva, evamo, evate, 

evano 
Sec. imp. / remained, 8$c rimasi, rimanesti, rimase, rimane'm- 

mo, rimaneste, rimasero 
First fut. I shall remain, $c ....rimarrd, rimarrai, rimarra, rimar- 

remo, rimarrete, rimarranno 
Subj. pres. / may remain^ fyc rimanga, rimanga, rimanga, rimani* 

amo, rimaniate, rimangano 



OF IRREGULAR VERBS IN ere. 171 

Imperfect. I might remain, fyc. ..riman-essi, e'ssi, esse, essimo, este, 

essero 
Conditional. I should remain, #c..rimarrei, rimarresti, rimarrebbe, 

rimarremmo, rimarreste, rimar- 

rebbero 
Imperative. Remain thou, fyc rimani, rimanga, rimaniamOj rima- 

nete, rimangano 

Put rimaso to the simple tenses of essere, and you will 
have the compound tenses. 

Observations. 

1. Rimasto, instead of rimaso, is often used in a 
familiar style. We advise the student to use always 
rimaso, as more elegant. 

% Instead of rimango, rimaniamo, and rimangano, 
some have used rimagno, rimanghiamo, rimagrumo. 
Erroneous, and on no account to be imitated. 



Sapere. 



Inf. to know, . . . sapere 



Ger. knowing... .eapdndo 



conjugated with avere Part, known saputo 

Ind. pres. I know, $c so, sai, sa, sappiamo, sape'te, sanno 

First imp. I kneiv, tyc ....sap-evo, evi, eva, evamo, evate, 

evano 
Sec. imp. I knew, S^c seppi, sapesti, se'ppe, sapemmo, 

sapeste, seppero 
First, fut. I shall know, Sfc. ..sapro, saprai, sapra, sapremo, sa- 

prete, sapranno 
Subj. pres. I may know, fyc. ..sappia, sappia, sappia, sappiamo, 

sappiate, sappiano 
Imperfect. I might know, #c..sap-essi, essi, esse, e'ssimo, dste, 

essero 
Conditional. / should know, 4*c..saprei, sapre'sti, sapr^bbe, sapr&n- 

mo, sapreste, saprebbero 
Imperative, know thou, fyc sappi, sappia, sappiamo, sappiate, 

sappiano 

Put saputo to the simple tenses of avere, ancj you 
will have all the compound tenses. 

i2 



17^ OF IRREGULAR VERBS IN ere. 

The derivatives of sapere are — 

assapere (fare) to let one know 

risapere ..to know again 



Sedere. 



Inf. to sit doivn....sed6re? i 
conjugated with avere 



Ger. sitting down,, sedendo 
Part, sat down seduto 



Ind. pres. I sit down, $c siedo, siedi, siede, sediamo, sedete, 

siedono 
First imp. I sat down, $c sed-evo, evi, eVa, evamo, evate^ 

evano 

Sec. imp. I sat down, fyc sed-ei, £sti, e> e*mmo, este, eVono 

First, fut. I shall sit down, #c...sed-erd, erai, era, eremo, erete, 

eranno 
Subj. pres. I may sit down, #c... segga, segga, segga, sediamo, 

sediate, seggano 
Imperfect. I might sit down, #c...sed-essi, essi, dsse, essimo, e*ste, 

e*ssero 
Conditional. Ishoiddsitdown,SfG...sed-eYei, eresti, erebbe, eremmo, 

ereste, erebbero 
Imperative, sit down, Sfc siedi, segga, sediamo, sedete, 

seggano 

Put seduto to the simple tenses of avere, and you will 
find all the compound tenses. 

Observations. 

1 . Instead of siedo and siedono, seggo and seggano 
are used. Both equally good. 

2. Sedetti, sedette, sedettero, are as good as sedei, sede, 
sedermo. 

3. Instead of segga and seggaTio of the subjunctive 
and imperative, sieda and siedano have been used by 
writers. Both equally good. 

Instead of sedere we use seder si, when it is conju- 
gated with the particles mi, ti, si, ci, vi, si, before all the 
persons, and with the verb essere in the compound 
tenses, like dolersi ; as — 
Ind. pres. Mi sie'do, ti siedi, si sie'de, ci sediamo, vi sedete, si siedono 

And so on of all the other tenses. 



OF IRREGULAR VERBS IN ere. 173 

The derivatives of seder e are — 

possedere Jo possess 

presedere to preside 

risedere to reside 



Soler 



re. 



Inf. to be accustomed. . soler e 



Ger. being accustomed,. solendo 
No participle 

Ind. pres. I am accustomed, fyc soglio, suoli, suole, sogliamo, 

solete, sogliono 

First imp. I was accustomed, fyc sol-evo, evi, eva, evamo, evate, 

evano 

Subj. pres. I may be accustomed, j*c..soglia, soglia, soglia, sogliamo, 

solete, sogliano 

All the other tenses are not used, but this deficiency 
is supplied with the verb essere, and the word solito, 
which in that case may be called a participle ; and not 
only all the tenses that are wanting may be thus formed, 
but all the verb throughout ; as — 

Ind. pres. Sono, sei, e solito, siamo, siete, sono soliti 
First imp. Ero, eri, era solito, eravamo, eravate, erano soliti 

And so on of all the other tenses. 



Ger. holding tenendo 

Part, held tenuto 



Tenere. 

Inf. to hold tenere 

conjugated with avere 

Ind. pres. I hold, tyc tengo, tieni, tiene, teniamo, tenete, 

tengono 
First imp. I held, Sfc ten-evo, evi, eva, evamo, evate, 

evano 
Sec. imp. I held, fyc. tenni, tenesti, tenne, tenemmo, 

teneste, tennero 
First fut. I shall hold, #c. . . . . terro, terrai, terra, terremo, terrete, 

terranno 
Subj. pres. I may hold, fyc tenga, tenga, tenga, teniamo, 

teniate, tengano 
Imperfect. I might hold, fyc. ..ten-essi, essi, esse, essimo, este, 

essero 
Conditional. / shoidd hold, fyc. ..terrei, terre'sti, terrebbe, terremmo, 

terreste, terrebbero 
Imperative, hold thou, $c tieni, te'nga, teniamo, tenete, 

tengano 



174 OF IRREGULAR VERBS IN ere. 

Put tenuto to the simple tenses of avere, and you will 
have the compound tenses. 

Observations. 

1. Tenghiamo is not to be used for teniamo ; but 
iegnamo may, as it is frequently found in authors of 
note. 

The derivatives of tenere are — - 



appartenere. ...to belong 

astenere to abstain 

astenersi to abstain 

attenere to attatn 

contenere to refrain 



mantenere to maintain 

ottenere to obtain 

ritenere to retain 

sostenere to support 

and perhaps a few more 



Valere. 



Inf. to be worth. . ..valere 
conjugated with avere and essere 



Ger. being worth.. valendo 
Part, been worth . . . valuto 



Ind. pres. I am worth, fyc vaglio, vali, vale, vagliamo, valete, 

vagliono 
First, imp. I was worth, S^c val-evo, evi, eva, evamo, evate, 

evano 
Sec. imp. I was worth, S^c valsi, valesti, valse, valernmo, 

valeste, valsero 
First fut. I shall be worth, #c....varrd, varrai, varra, varremo, 

varrete, varranno 
Subj. pres. I may be worth, $c.... vaglia, vaglia, vaglia, vagliamo, 

vagliate, vagliano 
Imperfect. 1 might be worth, $Y\...val-essi, essi, esse, e'ssimo, este, 

essero 
Conditional. Ishouldbeworth,$c,...v2LYrei f varresti, varrebbe, varrem- 

mo, varreste, varrebbero 
Imperative, be thou worth, #c.,....vali, vaglia, vagliamo, valete, va- 
gliano 

Put valuto to the simple tenses of avere, or essere 9 and 
you will find all the compound tenses. 

Observations. 

1. Instead of vaglio and vagliono, we use valgo and 
valgono. All very proper. 



OF IRREGULAR VERBS IN ere. 175 

% Valghiarno is improperly used for vagliamo. 

3. Vaglia and vagliano, of the subjunctive and im- 
perative, may be changed into valga and valgano. 

Prevalere seems to be the only derivative of valere, to 
which are better adapted the terminations in algo, alga, 
algano, than aglio, aglia, agliano ; therefore we are to 
say, prevdlgo, prevalga, prevalgano, and not prevaglio, 
prev aglia, prevagliano, &c. 



Vedere. 



Inf. to see.... vedere 
conjugated with avere 



Ger. seeing. ...vedendo 
Part, seen veduto. 



Inf. pres. I see, §c ved-o, i, e, iamo, ete, ono 

First imp. I saw, $c... ved-evo, evi, eva, evamo, evate, 

evano 
Sec. imp. Isaw,Sfc vidi, vede'sti, vide, yedemmo, 

vedeste, videro 
First flit. I shall see, tyc vedrd, vedrai, vedra, vedremo, 

vedrete, vedranno 

Subj. pres. I may see, fyc ved-a, a, a, iamo, iate, ano 

Imperfect. I might see, fyc ved-essi, essi, esse, essimo, este, 

essero 
Conditional./ should see, Sfc vedrei, vedresti, vedrebbe, ve- 

dremmo, vedreste, vedrebbero 
Imperative, see thou, fyc ved-i, a, iamo, ete, ono 

Put veduto to the simple tenses of avere, and you will 
find all the compound tenses. 

Observations. 

1. Veduto may be changed into visto. Both good. 

2. The present tense makes also io veggio, or veggo, 
noi veggiamo, eglino veggiono, or veggono. All good. 

3. Instead of vidi, vide, videro, we find in good 
authors viddi, vidde, viddero. It is better to use the 
former. 

4. Vedero and vederei, &c. are improperly used for 
vedro and vedrei. 

5. The subjunctive present makes also vegga, vegga, 



176 OF IRREGULAR VERBS IN ere. 

vegga, veggidmo, veggiate, veggano. Both ways equally 
good. 

6. The second person of the imperative is sometimes 
changed into ve 9 by prose writers. 

The derivatives of vedere are — 



antivedere ...... to foresee 

avvedersi to perceive 

provedere to provide 



i i vedere to see again 

stravederc.fo see much 
travedere.. ..to oversee 



Volere. 

Inf. to be willing.. vo\6re Gen. being willing.. voUndo 

conjugated with avere Part, been willing... voluto 

Ind. pres. I will, ^c, voglio, vuoi,. vuole, vogliamo, 

volete, vogliono 
First imp. I woidd, fyc vol-evo, evi, eva, evamo, evate, 

eVano 
Sec. imp/ I would, fyc volli, vole'sti, voile, volemmo, 

voleste, vollero 
First fut. I shall be willing, Sfc.vono, vorrai, vorra, vorremo, 

vorrete, vorranno 
Subj.pres. I maybe willing, #■<?... voglia, voglia, voglia, vogliamo, 

vogliate, vogliano 
Imperfect. Imightbe 2villing,fyc... \o\-essi, essi, esse, essimo, este, 

essero 
Conditional. 1 shouldbe willing,^ c.vorrei, vorresti, vorrebbe, vorrem- 

mo, vorreste, vorrebbero 

This verb has no imperative. 

Put voluto to the simple tenses of avere, and you will 
find all the compound tenses. 

Observations. 

1. Instead of voglio, we say vo' and vuo\ All good. 

% For volli, voile, vollero, we find in good authors 
volsi, volse, volsero. Not to be used in prose, as they 
come from the verb volgere, to turn. 

{ 6. Beware of saying volero, volerei, for vorro, and 
vorrei, for they are the future and conditional of the 
verb volare, to fly. 



OF IRREGULAR VERBS IN ere. 177 

The derivatives of volere are — 

rivolere to ask again 

disvolere to refuse 



Section IX. 

OF TKREGULAR VERBS ENDING IN ere SHORT. 

These verbs are about four hundred in number, the 
irregularity of which consists chiefly in the second im- 
perfect and participle ; but there are some of them which 
are irregular also in other tenses, ail of which we divided 
into classes in our small grammar ; and as that method 
has been much approved of, and found extremely easy, 
we, notwithstanding all that has been said against it (1), 
will offer it again to the student of the Italian language, 
with some improvements, as we are convinced of its 
utility. 



(l) A modern grammarian, whose grammar presents nothing else 
but an assemblage of declined nouns and pronouns, and conjugated 
verbs, and which is destitute of all that is necessary to be known for 
the attainment of the Italian language, has asserted, that all the 
attempts made by grammarians to subject irregular verbs ending in 
ere short, to certain rules, are fruitless, and only tend to puzzle 
learners, on account of the innumerable exceptions ; and he main- 
tains that his alphabetical list is better calculated for conveying a 
knowledge of them. We answer, that long experience and accurate 
observation on this subject induced us to believe that a classification 
of these verbs would be a desideratum ; we made an attempt in our 
small grammar, and as our expectations were fulfilled, we offer it 
again to the student; and though this method is attended with 
some exceptions, it will be seen, on examination, that they are 
neither so many, nor do they tend to puzzle the learner ; but will 
be found to be but few, and easy to be committed to memory, when 
compared with his never-ending list of three or four hundred verbs. 
Exceptions should not prevent an enlightened grammarian from 
establishing new rules, if he cannot attain his purpose by any other 
means. It is, therefore, a proof of a slender judgment, to condemn 
a series of grammatical rules, on account of their being subject ta 
exceptions. 

i3 



178 



OF IRREGULAR VERBS IN ere. 



It is to be observed, that as the second imperfect and 
the participle of these verbs are formed by their termina- 
tions, the learner is to be guided by them only ; and as 
many of these verbs have their last four or five letters 
alike, we have made one or two letters to precede the 
said terminations, in order that the student may by these 
letters easily see to which class the termination belongs ; 
as, for example, ndere, preceded by a and e, belongs to 
the first class, consequently, the second imperfect is si, 
and the participle is so. If it is preceded by o, it belongs 
to the fifth class, and its imperfect is si, and its parti- 
ciple sto. Again :—gere preceded by ar and er^ belongs 
to the first class, and makes si and so ; but if it is pre- 
ceded by /, n, or, it belongs to the second, and makes 
si and to ; and so on of the other teminations and 
classes. 

Table of the Classes of Verbs ending in ere short. 



In 



(l).dere 

(2) .rere 


First Class. 

ar....dere.... 

cor ..rere .... 


a.. .ndere,.. 
e... ndere .. 
ar..gere.,.. 
er ..gere.... 


spa ..ndere.. 

f re ....ndere.. 

spar. .gere.... 

asper-gere.... 




Second Class. 



In guere estin.guere 

1.. ..gere vol . ..gere.. 

11. ..gere pian.gere.. 

or ..gere scor..gere.. 

n . ..cere vin...cere.. 

r....cere tor.. .cere.. 

1.. ..vere assol-vere. . 

1.. ..lere sveL.lere .. 

u. ..mere assd..mere. 

gliere to.. ..gliere ..J 



>. 



.to 



(1) Dere, preceded by any letter except e and n. 

(2) Rere is preceded by r only. 



OF IRREGULAR VERBS IN ere. 



179 



In 



In 



In 



Third Class. 

ce..dere , conce-dere ..^) 

c.ttere me....ttere.. | 

i....mere imDri .mere. 



::f 



o...tere scuo..tere 

o...vere muo ..vere... j 

Fourth Class. 

(l) . ggere le .. ..ggere .. 

i....vere scri..vere.... 

a ..ere tra ..ere .... ;>. 

u ..cere addd-cere .. ] 

o ..cere cuo..cere.... J 

Fifth Class. 

o ..ndere .....nasco-ndere ^ 

ic.dere chie..dere .. >. 

o ..rre po....rre.... ) 



.sso 



.tto 



.sto 



Explanation of the Table. 

The first column indicates the terminations which are 
preceded by one or two letters ; the second denotes the 
verbs, from which the terminations are derived ; the third 
shows the termination of their second imperfect ; and 
the fourth, that of their participle. 

Change the terminations of the second column into 
those of the third and fourth, and you will find the first 
person of the second imperfect, and likewise the participle 
of the verbs in question. Thus, ardere, change dere into 
m and so, and you will find am, arso. And again : — ■ 
estinguere, change guere into si and to, and you will 
find estin-si) estin-to, and so on. 

To form the other persons of the second imperfect, 
see page 145. 

As, however, there are some which are irregular in 
other tenses, we shall proceed by giving an example of 
each. 



(3) All verbs in ggere. 



180 OF IRREGULAR VERBS IN ere. 

First Class, 

The verbs of the first class are terminated in dere, 
rere, a-ndere, e-ndere, ar-gere, er-gere, and make si in 
the second imperfect, and so in the participle. 

In conjugating the verbs of all the classes, we shall 
give all the tenses, regular and irregular. The regular 
tenses, however, will be marked only by their termina- 
tions, and the irregular will be set down entire. As to 
the auxiliary verbs, we will affix e, meaning essere, to 
those that are to be conjugated with essere, and to those 
which may be conjugated with either, ae. 



Ardere. 

Inf. to burn ardere Ger. burning, ...ardendo 

conjugated with avere Part, burnt arso 

Ind. pres. I bum, fyc ard-o, i, e, iamo, ete, ono 

First irnp. I burnt, ^c ard-evo, evi, eva, evamo, evate y 

evano ♦ 
Sec. imp. I burnt, ^c ar-si, ardesti, ar-se, ardemmo," ar- 

deste, ar-sero 
First flit. I shall burn, fyc. .•ard-ero, erai, era, eremo, erete, 

eranno 
Subj. pres. I may burn, fyc. ..ard-a, a, a, iamo, iate, ano 
Imperfect. I might burn, fyc... ard-essi, 6ssi, esse, essimo, este, 

essero 
Conditional. I should burn, ^c.ard-erei, eresti, erebbe, eremmo, 

ereste, erebbero 
Imperative, burn thou, fyc ard-i, a, iamo, ete, ano 

Put arso to the simple tenses of avere, and you will 
have all the compound tenses. 

The following verbs belong to the first class, and are 
conjugated like ardere, paying attention to form the 
regular tenses by changing ere into the terminations set 
clown as above, which are the same as those of the 
second conjugation, page 145; and the irregular ones 
by changing the terminations separated by dots, as 
follows : — 



OF ■ IRREGULAR VERBS IN ere. 



181 



acchiu .... dere . . . . to inclose 

anci dere.. .Jo kill 

arri dere.... to favour 

chiu ...... dere. ..Jo shut 

circon .. ..dere to surround 

colli dere... Jo beat 

conchiu.. dere... Jo conclude 
con qui.... d ere.... to conquer 

corro ....dere to corrode 

deci .dere... Jo decide 

delu dere ..Jo delude 

deri dere... Jo deride 

dischiu . . dere ...Jo disclose 
disper .. ..dere.. .Jo squander 
divi ...... dere.... to divide 

inchiu dere. ..Jo include 

inci dere. ...to make an 

incision 
ce accor rere..^ 

J> to run 
ce concor....rere.. f 

cb cor rere.. J 

discor ....rere. ..Jo discourse 

eoccor ....rere... Jo want 

e precor .... rere .... to fore run 

appe ndere . . to hang 

appre .. ..ndere .Jo learn 

arre ndere ..to surrender 

ce asce ndere . . to ascend 

atte ndere ..to attend 

compre ..ndere. Jo understand 
condesce-ndere. Jo condescend 

conte ndere ..to contend 

dif e ndere . . to defend 

disappre.. ndere ..to unlearn 

edisce ndere. Jo descend 

discosce.. ndere ..to break asun- 
der 

dispe ndere .Jo spend 

diste ndere ..to stretch 

este ndere. Jo extend 

ince ndere. Jo burn 

inte ndere .Jo intend 



inclu dere... Jo include 

intri...... dere. ...to temper 

intru dere... Jo intrude 

inva dere... Jo invade 

mor dere.. .Jo bite 

preci dere... Jo shorten 

preclu.. ..dere.. ..to hinder 

per dere(l) to lose 

racchiu .. dere... Jo inclose 

ra dere... Jo shave 

reci dere... Jo cut 

ri ....... .dere. ..Jo laugh 

ro dere... Jo gnaw 

sorri dere.. ..to smile 

sper dere ...Jo dissipate 

straper.... dere. ...to lose much 
ucci dere... Jo kill 

ricor rere. ..Jo have re- 
course 
ritrascor ..rere .... to peruse 

scor rere.,. Jo run 

soccor .. ..rere ...Jo help 
stracor ....rere .. ..to run fast 
trascor ..rere ...Jo run over 



intrapre ..ndere. 

offe ndere. 

pre ndere . 

prete ndere. 

racce ndere. 

re ndere. 

ripre ndere. 

rite ndere. 

see ndere . 

sorpre.... ndere. 

sospe ndere. 

spa ndere. 

spe ndere. 

ste ndere. 

te ndere, 

trasce ....ndere. 



, to undertake 
to offend 
to take 
to pretend 
to rekindle 
,to restore 
Jo re-take 
, to extend 
,to descend 
,to s zap rise 
, to suspend 
Jo spill 

, to spend 
Jo extend 
,to extend 
Jo surpass 



1 ) Perdere is also regular. 



182 OF IRREGULAR VERBS IN ere. 

asper .... gere. . . . to sprinkle 
eosper.. . . gere ...Jo sprinkle 
disper ....gere....£o disperse 
immer.. ..gere.. ..to plunge 



sommer ..gere.. .Jo drown 

spar gere... Jo spread 

sper gere.. .Jo disperse 

ter ,gere....£o wipe 



Observations. 

1 . Perdere is also regular. 

9. Ergere also belongs to this class, but its participle 
is erto, and not erso. 

Second Class. 

The verbs of this class are terminated in guere, l-gere, 
n-gere^ or-gere, n-cere, r-cerc, l-vere, l-lere, u-mere, and 
gliere, which make si in the second imperfect, and to in 
the participle. 



Distinguere. 



Inf. to distinguish .... distinguere 
conjugated with avere 



Ger. distinguishing.. distin- 

guendo 
Part, distinguished ..distinto 



Ind. pres 2" distinguish, kc. distingu-o, i, e, iamo, ete, ono 

First imp. I distinguished, fyc . . .. distingu-evo, evi, eva, evaino, evate, 

evano 
Sec. imp. I distinguished, fyc distin-si, distinguesti, distln-se, dis- 

tinguemmo, distingueste, distin- 

sero 
First fut. / shall distinguish, c^c.distingu • ero, erai, era , eremo, erete, 

eranno 
Subj. pres. / may distinguish, <5c.distingu a, a, a, iamo, iate, ano 
Imperfect. I might distinguish, § c.distingu-essi , essi, esse, essimo, este. 

essero 
Conditional. I shoidd distinguish, } distingu-erei, eresti, erebbe, erem- 

&-c $ mo, ereste, erebbero 

Imperative, distinguish thou, #r....distingn-i, a, iamo, ete, ono 

Put distinto to the simple tenses of avere, and you 
will have all the compound tenses. 



OF IRREGULAR VERBS IN ere. 



183 



The following verbs belong to this class, and are con- 
jugated like distinguere. 



' estin...,. 


.guere 


.to pid oat 


restrin.. 


.gere.. 


..to restrain 


accm .... 


.gere.. 


..to prepare 


riaggiun 


.gere.. 


..to add again 


eaccor.... 


.gersi . 


. to perceive 


ricongmn.gere.. 


..to unite again 


aggiun . 


.gere.. 


..to add 


ngiun .. 


.gere.. 


.to overtake 


astrin .., 


.gere.. 


..to press 






again 


attin.... 


.gere.. 


..to draiv water 


rimun .. 


.gere.. 


..to milk again 


avvol... 


.gere.. 


..to turn 


rinvol .. 


.gere.. 


.to fold up 


cm 


.gere.. 


..to gird 
..to pity 






again 
..to offer again 


compian 


.gere.. 


ripor 


..gere.. 


compun . 


.gere.. 


..to afflict 


npun ..., 


.gere.. 


..to prick again 


congiun. 


.gere.. 


. . to join 


ensor 


.gere.. 


..to rise again 


costnn . 


.gere.. 


..to oblige 


rispin .. . 


.gere.. 


. to push back 


dipin ... 


..gere.. 


..to paint 


ristrm . . . 


.gere.. 


..to restrain 


disgiun . 
disvol .. 


.gere.. 
.gere.. 


..to disunite 


ntin .... 


.sere.. 


. . to dye again 
..to turn back 


..to divert 


rivol.... 


.gere.. 


fin 


.gere.. 


..to dissemble 


sccnvol 


.gere.. 


..to confuse 


fran .... 


.gere.. 
.gere.. 


..to break 


scor 


.gere.. 


. . to perceive 
..to add 


giun.... 


..to arrive 


soggiun . 


.gere.. 


infran ... 


.gere.. 
.gere.. 


. . to break 
..to soak 


^'sor- 


..gere.. 
.gere.. 


..to rise 


intin.... 


sospin .. 


..to push 


in vol ... 


.gere.. 


..to fold up 


spen.... 


„gere.. 


. . to put out 


mun.... 


. gere.. 


..to milk 


spin .... 
tf-spor .... 


.o-ere.. 


. . to drive back 


pian .... 


..gere.. 


..to weep 


.gere . 


..to jut 


pin 




..to paint 


stravol . 


.gere.. 


..to twist 


por 


..gere.. 


. . to offer 


Strin 


.gere.. 


. . to press 


pun 


.gere.. 


..to prick 


tin 


.gere.. 


..to dye 


raggiun 


..gere.. 


..to overtake 


travol .. 


.gere.. 


..to twist 


ravvol .. 


..gere.. 
.gere.. 


..to fold up 
..to push back 


un 


..gere.. 


..to anoint 


respin .. 


vol 


.gere.. 


..to turn 


attor.... 


..cere.. 


..to hoist 


rivin.... 


..cere. 


..to win again 


avvin .. 


..cere.. 
..cere.. 


..to tie 
..to twist 


stor 


..cere. 
..cere.. 


..to untwist 


contor.. 


strator . 


..to twist much 


convin.. 


..cere.. 


..to convince 


stravm . 


..cere.. 


..to ivin much 


distor. .. 


..cere.. 
..cere.. 
..cere.. 


..to untwist 
..to luring 
..to twist again 


tor 


.cere.. 
..cere.. 


..to twist 


rattor .. 


vin 


..to win 


ritor.... 






assol.... 


..vere.. 


..to absolve 


rivol.... 


.vere.. 


..to revolve 


dissol... 




..to dissolve 


vol 


..vere.. 


..to turn 


risol .... 


..vere.. 


..to resolve 








disvel... 


..lere.. 


..to pluck 
..to pluck 


svel...,. 


..lere .. 


..to pluck 


divel,... 





184 OF IRREGULAR VERBS IN ere. 



assu mere... £o assume 

consu ....mere...£o consume 

acco gliere ..to welcome 

co .. . gliere ..to gather 

discio ....gliere ..to unloosen 

disto gliere . . to divert 

rico gliere ..to pick up 



presu mere ...to presume 

resu mere...fo resume 

risce gli ere . . to choose again 

riscio . . . . , gliere . . to loosen again 

rito gliere*.. to retake 

scio gliere.. to loosen 

trasce gliere ..to choose 



Observations. 

1. All infinitives ending in ngere, may end in gnere ; 
thus, pingere, pignere, mungere, mugnere, siringere, 
strignere, &c. 

2. Astringere, costringere, restringere, stringere, and 
all other derivatives of stringere, make their participle 
by changing ingere into etto, thus, astringere, astretto, 
costringere, costretto. 

S. Svettere, divettere, disvellere, are also irregular in 
the present of the indicative, subjunctive^ and impera- 
tive ; thus — 

Ind. pres, Ipluck,fyc svelgo, svelli, svelle, svelliamo, svel- 

lete, svelgono 
Subj. pres. / may pluck 9 jrc... svelga, svelga, svelga, svelliamo, svel- 

liate, svelgano 
Imp. pres. pluck thou, fyc svelli, svelga, svelliamo, svellete, 

svelgano 

4. Assumere, and all verbs in tc-rnere, change the m 
into n in forming the irregular persons only of the second 
imperfect, and also the participle ; thus, assu-mere, assu- 
nsiy assu-nto, &c. consumere, consii-nsi, consu-nto, &c. 

5. Verbs in gliere, in changing their termination into 
si and to, in order to form their second imperfect and 
their participle, are to retain the I of gliere, thus, cog-Mere, 
coLsi, colto, scio-gliere, sciol-si, scioLto, he. 

These verbs may also end in rre ; as, cogliere, corre, 
sciogliere> sciorre, &c. ; and as they are irregular in some 
other tenses, we shall give an example. 



OF IRREGULAR VERBS IN ere. 185 



Cogliere, or Corre. 
Inf. to gather,, cogliere or corre Ger. gtf^m'?zg....cogliendo 



conjugated luith avere 



Part, gathered ....colto 



Ind. pres. I gather, §c coglio or colgo, cogli, coglie, co- 

gliamo, cogliete, cogliono or 

colgono 
First imp. I gathered, §-c cogli-evo, evi, eva, evamo, evate, 

evano 
Sec. imp. I gathered, ^c colsi, cogliesti, colse, cogliemmo, 

eoglieste, colsero 
First fut, I shall gather, ^...corr 6, eorrai, corra, corre'mo, 

correte, corranno 
Subj. pres. I may gather, #c... cogli a, orc61ga,c61ga, colga, coglia- 

mo, cogliate, cogliano or colgano 
Imperfect. \I might gather, $-<?.. cogli-essi, essi, esse, essimo, este, 

essero 
Conditional. / should gather, $ccorrei, corresti, correbbe, correm- 

rao, correste, correbbero 
Imperative, gather thou, Sfc... cogli, colga, cogliamo, cogliete, 

colgano 

6. Assolvere, dissolvere, and risolvere, are also regu - 
lar. See page 145. 

Third Class. 

The verbs of this class are terminated in ce-dere, 
e-ttere, i-mere, o-tere^ o-vere, which make ssi in the second 
imperfect, and sso in the participle. 



Accedere. 



Inf. to accede.... accedere 
conjugated with avere 



Ger. acceding. . accedendo 
Part, acceded . . . accesso 



Ind. pres. I accede, Sfc acced-o, i, e, iamo, ete, ono 

First imp. I acceded, $c acced-evo, evi, e'va, evamo, evate, 

evano 
Sec. imp. I acceded, $c accessi, accedesti, accesse, acce- 

demmo, accedeste, accessero 
First fut. I shall accede, &c..acced-ero, erai, era, eremo, erete, 

eranno 



186 



OF IUREGULAR VEltBS IN eTC. 



Subj. pres. I may accede, $c acced-a, a, a, iamo, iate, ano 

Imperfect. I might accede, $'£.... acced-essi, essi, esse, essimo, este, 

essero 
Conditional. I should accede, $c..acced-erei, eresti, erebbe, eremmo, 

ereste, erebbero 
Imperative, accede thou, fyc acced-i, a, iamo, ete, ano 

Put accesso to the simple tenses of avere^ and you 
will have all the compound tenses. 

The following verbs are conjugated like accedere. 



eon ce der e . . . . to grant 

ecce dere to exceed 

interce dere.. .Jo intercede 

prece dere to precede 



amme ttere . 

anne ttere. 

comme ....ttere . 

conne ttere . 

comprome-ttere . 

disme ttere . 

tramme.... ttere. 
intrame.... ttere. 
introme.... ttere 



..to admit 
..to join 
..to commit 
..to unite 
..to compromise 
..to dismiss 
..toputbetween 
..to put between 
to introduce 



proce dere.... to proceed 

^rece dere to recede 

^succe dere....£o succeed 



me ttere . 

ome ttere., 

perme ttere 

preme ttere 

prome ttere.. 

rime ttere.. 

scomme ...ttere.. 
sottome.... ttere.. 
trasme ttere.. 



to put 
..to omit 
..to permit 
. . to premise 
..to promise 
,..to remit 
..to lay a wager 
..to submit 
..to transmit 



compri mere... to compress 

depri mere ...to depress 

espri m ere ... to express 

impri mere ...to impress 



perco .. 
riper co 



. ..tere..../o strike 

. . . tere ....to strike again 



commo ....vere....fo affect 

dismo vere..„.fo stir up 

mo vere....£o move 



oppri mere ...to oppress 

repri mere ...to repress 

soppri mere ...to suppress 

risco tere....£o receive 

sco tere. ...to shake 

promo vere.... to promote 

rimo vere....£o remove 

smo vere to move 



Observations. 

1 . All verbs in ce-dere, are also regular. See page 145. 

2. The second imperfect of verbs in ettere, (except 
connettere), besides its termination in ssi, as above, has 
another which is formed by changing etiere into isi 9 



OP IRREGULAR VERBS IN 6Te. 187 

which is preferable to the former ; as — -m-ettere 9 m-isi, 
comm-ettere 9 comm-isi, fyc. 

8. In forming the irregular persons of the second 
imperfect and participle of verbs in i-mere, not only 
mere is changed into ssi, as above, but also the i which 
precedes mere is to be changed into e ; as — espri-mere, , 
espr-essi, espr-esso, compri-mere, compr-essi, compr-esso. 
From the verbs in i-mere, redi-mere, to redeem, is 
excepted, which makes redensi in the second imperfect, 
and redento in the participle. 

4. Mo-vere and sco-tere 9 with all their derivatives^ 
may be changed into muo-vere and scuo-tere, which u 
is retained in some persons, and in others is omitted. 
The following is an example of the tenses that retain 
u: — 



Inf. to move., movere, or muovere 
conjugated with avere 



Ger. movendo, or muovendo 
Part, moved,,.. always mosso 



Ind. pres. I move, ^c muovo, muovi, muove, moviamo, 

movete, muovono 
First fut. I shall move, <%•<?... muGvero, muoverai, muovera, 

muoveremo, muoverete, muo- 

veranno 
Subj. pres. I may move, <5c... muova, muova, muova, moviamo, 

moviate, muovano 
Conditional. / should move, $*c..muoverei, muoveresti, muoverebbe, 

muoveremmo, muovereste, rau- 

overebbero 
Imperative. Move thou, §c muovi, muova, moviamo, moviate, 

muovano 

In the same manner are conjugated the verbs in 
o4ere. 

Fourth Class. 

The verbs of this class are terminated in ggere* i-vere 9 
a-rre, u-rre^ and o-cere^ which make ssi in the second 
imperfect, and tto in the participle. 



188 



OF IRREGULAR VERBS IN ere. 



Leggere. 

Inf. to read. . . . leggere Ger. reading leggendo 

conjugated with avere Part . read letto 

Ind„ pres. I read, tyc legg-o, i, e, iamo, ete, ono 

First imp. I read, ^c legg-evo, evi, eva, evamo, evate, 

evano 
Sec. imp. I read, ^c lessi, leggestl, lesse, leggemmo, 

leggeste, lessero 
First fiit. I shall read, fyc legg-ero, erai, era, eremo, erdte, 

eranno 

Subj. pres. I may read, $c legg-a, a, a, iamo, iate, ano 

Imperfect. I might read, ^c....legg-essi, essi, e'sse, essimo, este, 

£ssero 
Conditional. I should rea d, <3fc..legg-erei, eresti, erebbe, eremmo, 

ereste, erebbero 
Imperative. Read thou, 8$c legg-i, a, iamo, ete, ano 



Put letto to the simple tenses of avere, and you will 
have all the compound tenses. 



The following verbs are conjugated like leggere. 



affi ggere. .£o affix 

affli ggere.. fo afflict 

confi ggere.. fo nail 

corre ggere . . to correct 

distr u ggere . . to destroy 

ele ggere.. to elect 

ere ggere. . to erect 

ascri vere ...to attribute 

circonscri-vere ...to circumscribe 

descri vere ...to describe 

prescri .. ..vere ...to prescribe 

ra vvi vere ...to revive 

rescri vere ...to transcribe 

attra rr e. . . , ,to attract 

contra .. ..rre to contract 

detra rre.. ...to slander 

distra rre to divert from 

estra rre extract 



fi ggere. .to fix 

fri ggere. .to fry 

prote .. ..ggere.. to protect 

re ggere.. to rule 

rile ggere.. to read again 

stru ggere.. to destroy 

trafi ggere . . to pierce i 

rivi.„. .. ..vere . ..to live again 

scri vere...£o write 

sopravvi-vere ...to survive 
sottoscri-vere ...to subscribe 
trascri. ..vere ...to transcribe 
vi vere ...to live 

protra . . . rre to draw lines 

ritra ..... rre to describe 

sottra.. ..rre to subtract 

tra., rre.. ...to draw 



OF. IRREGULAR VERBS IN ere. 189 



addu rre to allege 

condu rre... Jo lead 

indu rre to induce 

introdu. ..rre to introduce 

produ rre..... to produce 



ridu rre to reduce 

riprodu..rre to produce 

again 

sedu ....rre to seduce 

soddu. ..rre to seduce 



co cere t . Jo cook rico cere.. Jo cook again 

conco cere. .Jo t" 



Exceptions. 

1. Crocifiggere makes crocifisso, not crocifitto. 

2. Ereggere is also spelled erigere, which I think is 
preferable to the former ; but the irregular tenses are 
formed from ereggere. 

3. Negligere may belong to this class by changing 
i-gere into essi and etto, to form the irregular tenses 
only. 

4. Figgere has two participles, sso and tto ; xhu^faso 
andJiUo. 

5. Vivere and its derivatives make vuto, ssuto ; thus, 
vivuto, vissuto. 

6. Verbs in arre and urre, end also in acre and ucere ; 
as, traere and inducere, from which are formed the 
regular tenses ; but as these verbs are irregular in other 
tenses besides the above, we shall give an example of 
each. 



Trarre. 



Inf. to draw.... trarre 
conjugated with avere 



Ger. drawing.. tra&ido 
Part. drawn.... trk- tto 



Ind. pres. I draw, §e traggo, trai, trae 3 trajamo, traete, 

traggono 
First imp. I drew, S$c ^.tra-evo, evi, eva, evamo, evate, 

evanp 
Sec. imp. I drew, S$c. , trassi, traesti, trassi, traernmo, 

trae'ste, trassero 



190 OF IRREGULAR VERBS IN ere. 

First fut. I shall draw, Sfc ..trarro, trarrai, trarra, trarre*mo, 

trarrete, trarranno 
Subj. pres. 7 may draw, 8$c. ..tragga, tragga, tragga, trajamo, 

trajate, traggano 
Imperfect. I might draw, <X ctra-essi, essi, esse, essimo, este, 

essero 
Conditional. I should draw trarrei, trarresti, trarrebbe, trar- 

remmo, trarreste, trarrebbero 
Imperative, draw thou, <§*c......trai, tragga, trajamo, traete, 

traggano 

Put tratto to the simple tenses of avere, and you will 
have all the compound tenses. 



Addurre. 

Inf. to allege addurre I Ger. alleging.... adduc&ndo 

conjugated with avere ] Part, alleged addotto 

Ind. pres. I allege, Sfc adduc-o, i, e, iamo, ete, ono 

First imp. I alleged, Sfc adduc-evo, evi, eva, evamo, evate, 

evano 
Sec. imp. I alleged, 8<c addussi, adducesti, addusse, addu- 

cemmo. adduceste. adddssero 
First fut. I shall allege, fyc. . . addurro, addurrai, addurra, addur- 

remo, addurrete, addurranno 
Subj. pres. I may allege, 8$c. ..adduc-a, a, a, iamo, iate, ano 
Imperfect. I might allege, <3rc..adduc-essi, essi, esse, essimo, este, 

essero 
Conditional. I should allege, fyc. addurrei, addurresti, adurrebbe, 

addurremmo, addurreste, addur- 

rebbero 
Imperative, allege thou, &$c adduc-i, a, iamo, ete, ano 

Put addotto to the simple tenses of avere, and you will 
have all the compound tenses. 

Lucere and rilucere are not syncopated like other verbs 
in ucere, and have no participle. 

Cocere and its derivatives take an u in the infinitive, 
like muovere and scuotere, for which see page 187. 



OF IRREGULAR VERBS TN ere. 



191 



Fifth Class. 

The verbs of this class are terminated in on-dere, 
ie-dere? and o-rre, which make si in the second imper- 
fect, and sto in the participle. 



Inf. to answer rispondere 

conjugated with avere 



Ger. answering. .rispondendo 
Part, answered ..risposto 



Ind. pres. I answer, $fc rispond-o, i, e, iamo, ete, ono 

First imp. / answered, Sec rispond-eVo, evi, eva,evamo, evate, 

evano 
Sec. imp. I answered, fyc risposi, rispondesti, rispose, ris- 

pondemmo, rispondeste, ris- 

posero 
First fat. I shall answer, fyc rispond-ero, erai, era, eremo, 

erete, eranno 

Subj. pres. I may answer, fyc rispond-a, a, a, iamo, iate, ano 

Imperfect. I might answer, S^c rispond-essi, essi, esse, essimo, este, 

essero 
Conditional. I should ansiver, <fyc....Yisponderei, eresti, erebbe, erem- 

mo, ereste, erebbero 
Imperative, answer thou, fyc rispond-i, a, iamo, ete, ano 

Put risposto to the simple tenses of avere, and you 
will have all the compound tenses. 

The following verbs are conjugated- like rispondere. 



ascon dere.. .to abscond 

confon ...dere to confound 

dhTon dere to diffuse 

disascon...dere to discover 

effon dere to pour out 

chie dere.... to ask 

appo ,rre to guess 

antepo ....rre to prefer 

compo ...rre to compose 

contrappo-rre to oppose 

depo rre to depose 

discompo rre to discompose 

dispo ....rre to dispose 

espo rre to expose 

impo rre to impose 

interpo ..rre to interpose 

oppo ....rre to oppose 

po rre.., ...to put 



fon dere to melt 

infon .... dere. . . . to infuse 
n ascon.... dere.... to hide 

rifon dere. . ..to melt again 

trasfon.... dere.... to pour out 
richie dere. ...to request 

pospo rre to prefer 

prepo rre to prefer 

presuppo..rre to suppose 

propo ....rre to propose 

ricompo ..rre to compose 

again 

ripo rre to put again 

scompo ..rre to spoil 

sottopo ..rre to submit 

spo rre to expose 

suppo ....rre to suppose 

traspo .... rre to transpose 



192 OF IRREGULAR VERBS IN ere. 

Observations. 

Fondere, and all its derivatives, change on-dere into usi, 
for the second imperfect, and into uso, for the participle ; 
thus — * 

fondere, fusi, fuso confondere, confiisi, conftiso 

Chiedere is conjugated like rispondere, and is also irre- 
gular in the present of the indicative, subjunctive, and 
imperative ; thus — 

Ind. pres, I ask,fyc chieggo, chiedi, chiede, chiediamo, 

chiedete, chieggono 

Subj. pres. I may ask, 8fc chiegga, chiegga, chiegga, chiedia- 
mo, chiediate, chieggano 

Imperative. Ask thou, Sfc chiedi, chiegga, chiediamo, chie- 
dete, chieggano 

All verbs in o-rre may also end in onere, thus, ponere, 
disporiere ; and as they are irregular in other tenses 
besides their second imperfect and participle, we will set 
down an example. 



Inf. to put porre 

conjugated with avere 



Ger. 2?2^kg....ponendo 
Part, put posto 



Ind. pres. Iput, $c... pongo, poni, pone, poniamo, 

ponete, pongono 
First imp. I put, tyc .pon-evo, e*vi, eva, evamo, evate, 

evano 
Sec. imp. Iputt, $c..* posi, ponesti, pose, ponemmo, 

poneste, posero 
First fut. I shall put, $c porrd, porrai, porra, porremo, 

porrete, porranno 
Subj. pres. I may put, Sfc ponga, ponga, ponga, poniamo, 

poniate, pongano 
Imperfect. I might put, #c....pon-essi, e'ssi, Isse, essimo, este, 

essero 
Conditional. I shouldput, £c....porrei, porresti, porrebbe, porrem- 

mo, porreste, porrebbero 
Imperative, put thou, fyc poni, ponga, poniamo, pone'te, 

pongano 

Put posto to the simple tenses of avere, and you will 
have all the compound tenses. 



OF IRREGULAR VERES IN ere. 193 

The following verbs, and their derivatives, being totally 
different from those of the above mentioned classes, are 
to be learned separately ; which will be easy, as they are 
irregular in the second imperfect only, except a few that 
are irregular in the participle, and only one that is 
irregular in other tenses, which we will set down, and 
conjugate that one only that is irregular in' other 
tenses besides the second imperfect and participle. 

INFINITIVE. SECOND IMPERFECT. PARTICIPLE. 

accre...scere to increase accre ..bbi accre ..sciuto 

€cre scere to grow ere bbi ere sciuto 

<?incre ..seere imp. } . , S incre...bbi incre ..sciuto 

^rincre .scere imp. \ J { rincre -bbi rincre .sciuto 

^stracre-scere to grow much stracre-bbi stracre-sciuto 

cono...scsre to know cono...bbi cono ..sciuto 

ricono scere .. to recognise ricono-bbi ricono sciuto 

no cere .. .. ae ..to hurt no cqui,...no ciuto 

ena scere to be born na cqui na to 

erina.... scere Jo be bom ag«m...rina....cqui....rina ...to 

corr....ompere to corrupt corr....uppi . 

dir ompere to soften dir uppi . 

r ompere to break r uppi , 

^pio vere imp to rain pio . we .. 

^ spio....vere imp.... to cease raining... spio ....we .. 
^ ripio, ..vere imp. ...to ram again ripio ...we .. 

be vere to drink be wi .. 

imbe...vere to imbibe imbe ...wi .. 

ribe....vere to drink again ....ribe....vvi .. 



Observation?. 

Plover e and its derivatives are impersonal, hence the 
termination piovve, in the third person singular. 

Nocere may take also an u ; thus, nuocere, and it is 
then conjugated like muoverem all other tenses. 

Severe^ imbevere, and ribevere are regular, and con- 
jugated like temere ; but they may be syncopated thus, 
here, imbere, ribeie, when they are irregular throughout 
all their tenses. Ex. 



..corr.. 


..otto 


..dir... 


.otto 


..r 


..otto 


..pio .. 


.vuto 


..spio... 


.vuto 


..ripio 


.vuto 


..be.... 


.vuto 


..imbe 


.vuto 


..ribe... 


.vuto 



194 OF IRREGULAR VERBS IN ere. 



Inf. to drink bere 

conjugated with avere 



Ger. drinking.. . . bevendo 
Part, drunk beuto 



Ind. pres. I drink, Sec. beo, bei, bee, bejamo, beete, beono 

First imp. 1 drank, fyc beevo, beevi s beeva, beevamo, 

beevate, beevano 
Sec. imp. I drank, fyc. bevvi, beesti, bevve, beemmo, 

beeste, bevvero 
First fut. / shall drink, ^-c. her 6, berai, bera, beremo, berete, 

beranno 
Subj. pres. I may drink, fyc... bea, bea, bea, bejamo, bejate, 

beano 
Imperfect. I might drink, Sf-cbeissi, beessi, beesse, bee'ssimo, 

beeste, beessero 
Conditional. I should drink, Sfc.berei, beresti, berebbe, beremmo, 

bereste, bei'cbbero 
Imperative, drink thou, fyc bei, bea, bejamo, bejate, beano 



Section X. 

OF IRREGULAR VERBS ENDING IN ire. 

The irregularity of the greatest part of these verbs 
consists in the present tense only. Some are both 
regular and irregular, and others are irregular in some 
tenses ; all of which we will set down with explanations 
and examples. 

The irregularity of the following verbs consists in the 
present tenses of the indicative, subjunctive, and im- 
perative, which are formed by changing ire into o, i, e> 
iarno, He, ono, instead of isco, isci, isce, iamo^ ite, iscono, 
as in page 151 . 



Inf. to hear sentire 

conjugated with avere 



Ger. ^<?tfnrag....sentendo 
Part, heard sentito 



Ind, pres. 1 hear ;, &c sent-o, i, e, iamo, ite, ono 

First imp. I heard, Sfc sent-ivo, ivi, iva, ivamo, ivate, 

ivano 
Sec. imp. I heard, Sfc sent-ii, isti, i, immo, iste, irono 



OF IRREGULAR VERBS IN ITC 



195 



First fut, I shall hear ,$0 sent iro 5 irai, ira, iremo, irete, 

iranno 
Subj. pres. I may hear, #c....sent-a, a, a, iamo, iate, ano 
Imperfect. I might hear 9 $c....sent-issi 9 issi, isse, issimo, iste, 

issero 
Conditional. I should* hear, #c..sent-irei, iresti, irebbe, iremmo, 

ireste, irebbero 
Imperative, hear thou, fyc sent-i, a, iamo, ite, ano 

Put sentito to the simple tenses of avere, and you will 
have all the compound tenses. 



The following verbs are conjugated like sentire : — 



abborr ....ire., 
avvert ire., 

convert-ire. 

divert ..ire. 

invert ..ire. 

sovvert..ire., 
boll ire.. 

riboll ..ire., 
consegu ..ire.. 
cue ire., 

ricuc ire., 

scuc ....ire., 
dorm ire. 

addorm ire., 

ridorm..ire., 

fer ire., 

<?fugg ire., 

erifugg ..ire.. 

sfugg....ire.. 
inghiott ..ire.. 

celangu ire., 

<rmor ire., 

ment ire.. 

diment .ire., 

sment ..ire., 
esment ..irsi 



nutr 
©ffr .. 



.ire., 
.ire., 



..to abhor 

..to admonish 

..to convert 

..to amuse 

..to invert 

..to overthrow 

..to boil 

..to boil again 

.Jo obtain 

..to sew 

..to sew again 

..to unsew 

..to sleep 

..to make sleep 

..to sleep again 

..to strike 

..to run away 

..to take shelter 

..to avoid 

..to swallow 

..to 

..to die 

..to lie 

. . to give the lie. 

..to belie 

..to contradict 

oneself 
..to nourish 
..to offer 



^part ire.. 

dip art ..ire. 
dispart ..ire. 
compart-ire. 
impart., ire., 
ripart...ire„ 
spar t.... ire., 

epent irsi 

<?rlpent ..irsi 

segu Are., 

sent... ire., 

consent-ire., 
dissent ..ire.. 

^per ire.. 

present.ire.. 
erisent...ire.. 
^risent ..irsi 

assent ..ire.. 

serv ...ire:. 

£sort ire.. 

assort... ire., 
.vest ire.. 

divest ..ire.. 

invest ..ire.. 

svest....ire.. 

stravest-ire.. 

travest..ire.. 



..to depart 
..to part 
..to separate 
..to bestow 
..to impart 
. . to part again 
..to separate 
..to repent 
..to repent 
..to follow 
..to hear 
..to consent 
..to dissent 
..to perish 
..to for et el 
..to awake 
..to recover one's 

senses 
..to assent 
,.to serve 
..to draw 
,.to sort 
..to dress 
.to divest 
..to invest 
..to undress 
.to disguise 
,.to disguise 



K 2 



196 



OF IRREGULAR VEIIBS IN ire. 



Observations. 

1. Convertire, divertire, invertire, sovvertire, make 
also, in the infinitive, convertere, divertere, invertere, sov- 
vertere ; but their conjugation is always the same. 

2. Cucire makes cucio, cuciono in the present of the 
indicative, cucia, cuciano in the present of the subjunc- 
tive, and curia, cuciano in the imperative, instead of 
cucOj cuconO) cuca, &c. 

Abborrire, conseguire, ferire, inghiotiire, languire, 
nutrire, offrire, perire, are also regular, and conjugated 
like Jinire. See page 151. 

Aprire is conjugated as follows: — 

Inf. to open... .aprire I Ger. opening... *aprendo 

conjugated ivith avere | Part, opened ....aperto 

Ind. pres. I open, §c ..apr-o, i, e, iamo, ite, ono 

First imp. I opened, fyc apr-ivo, ivi, iva, ivamo, ivate, 

% ivano 

Sec. imp. I opened, fyc apr-ii, isti, i, immo, iste, irono 

First fut. I shall open, #c....apr-iro, irai, ira, iremo, ire'te, 

iranno 
Subj. pres. I may open, #c....apr-a, a, a, iamo, iate, ano 
Imperfect. I might open, fyc. ..apr-issi, issi, isse, issimo, iste, 

issero 
Conditional. / should open, #c..apr-irei, iresti, irebbe, ire'mmo, 

ireste, irebbero 
Imperative, open thou, Sfc apr-i, a, iamo, ite, ano 

Put aperto to the simple tenses of avere, and you will 
have all the compound tenses. 

The following verbs are conjugated like aprire : — 



copr ire to cover 

offer ...„. .ire ) +„„#„„ 

xr • > to ofrer 

onr .ire 5 

proffer ...ire to utter 

riapr....„ire ........to open again 



ricopr . . ire. . . . to cover again 
scopr....ire....£o discover 
soffer....ire ) , „ 
soffr i re r ton ^ r 



OF IRREGULAH VEEBS IN ire. 197 

There are six other verbs of this conjugation, which 



in some tenses are irregular. 



Dire. 

Inf. to say dire G er . saying . . . . dicen do 

conjugated with avere 



Part, said detto 

Ind pres. I say, fyc dico, dici, dice, diciamo, dite, 

dicono 
First, imp. I said, ^c die evo, evi, eva, evamo, evdte, 

evano 
Sec. imp. I said, #c dissi, dicesti, disse, dicemmo, 

diceste, dissero 
First fut. I shall say, fyc diro, dirai, dira, dire'mo, direte, 

diranno 

Subj. pres. I may say, Sj-c dic-a, a, a, iamo, iate, ano 

Imperfect. I might say, #c... ..dic-essi, essi, esse, essimo, este, 

essero 
Conditional. I should say, #c....direi, direst!, direbbe, diremmo, 

direste, direbbero 
Imperative, say thou, $c. di', dica, diciamo, dite, dicano 

The following verbs are conjugated like dire : — 



bened ire to bless 

con trad.. ..ire to contradict 

interd ire to forbid 



m alad . . . . ire. ... to curse 

rid ire. ...to speak again 



Morire, 

Inf. to die m ori re Ger. dying .... morendo 

conjugated ivith essere 



Part, dead morto 

Ind. pres. I die, fyc. muojo, muori, muore, muojamo, 

morite, muojo no 
First imp. I died, fyc mor-ivo, ivi, iva, ivamo, ivate, 

ivano \ 

Sec. imp. I died, fyc mor-ii, isti, i, immo, iste, irono 

First fut. I shall die, fyc inorrd, morrai, morra, morremo, 

morrete, morranno 
Subj. pres. I may die, Sfc muoja, muoja, muoja, muojamOj 

muojate, muojano 
Imperfect. I might die, fyc. ....mor-issi, issi, isse, issimo, iste, 

issero 



198 OF IRREGULAR VERBS IN ire. 

Conditional. / should die, ■<S , c....morrei, morre'sti, morrebbe, mor- 

remmo, morrifste, morrebbero 

Imperative, die thou, Sfc mori, muoja, muojamo, morite, 

muojano 

Put morto to the simple tenses of essere, and you will 
have all the compound tenses. 



Sal 



ire. 



Inf. to go up.... satire 
conjugated with essere 



Ger. going up. . . . salendo 
Part, gone up ....salito 



Ind. pres. I go up, fyc salgo, sali, sale, sagliamo, salite, 

salgono 
First imp. I went up, Sfc sal-ivo, ivi, iva, ivamo, ivate, 

ivano 

Sec. imp. I went up, Sec sal-ii, isti, i, immo, iste, irono 

First fut. I shall go up, #•<?.. .sal-iro, irai, ira, iremo, irete, 

iranno 
Subj. pres. I may go up, $c.... saiga, saiga, saiga, sagliamo, sa- 

gliate, salgano 
Imperfect. I might go up, <J(\.sal-issi, issi, isse, issimo, iste, 

issero 
Conditional. I should go up, ^..sal-irei, iresti, irebbe, iremmo, 

ireste, irebbero 
Imperative, go thou up, fyc sali, saiga, sagliamo, salite, salgano 

Put salito to the simple tenses of essere, and you will 
have all the compound tenses. 

The following verbs are conjugated like satire : — • 

assal ire ... .to attack rassal ire .... to attack again 

frisal ire... Jo go up again 



Udil'e. 



Inf. to hear udire 

conjugated with avere 



Ger. hearing udendo 

Part, heard .udito 



Ind. pres. I hear, fyc odo, odi, ode, udiamo, udite, odono 

First imp. I heard, $c ud-ivo, ivi, iva, ivamo, ivate, ivano 

Sec. imp. I heard, fyc. ... .... ..ud-ii, isti, i, immo, iste, irono 



OF IRREGULAR VERBS IN ire. 199 

First fut. I shall hear, $c ud-iro, irai, ira, iremo, ire'te, 

iranno 
Subj. pres. I may hear, #c.....6da, oda, oda, udiamo, udiate, 

odano 
Imperfect. I might hear, fyc. ..ud-issi, issi, isse, issimo, iste, issero 
Conditional. I should hear, #c...ud-irei, iresti, irebbe, iremmo, 

ireste, irebbero 
Imperative, hear thou, $c odi, oda, udiamo, udite, odano 

Put udito to the simple tenses of avere, and you will 
have all the compound tenses. 

The following verbs are conjugated like udire : — 
fraud ire. ...to overhear traud . ire M ..to overhear 



Uscire. 

Inf. to go out uscire Ger. going ow£....uscendo 

conjugated with essere Part, gone out .. ..uscito 

Ind. pres. I go out, fyc. ......esco, esci, esce, usciamo, uscfte, 

escono 

First imp. / went out, See usc-ivo, ivi, iva, ivamo, ivate, ivano 

Sec. imp. I went out, Sec usc-ii, isti, i, imrao, Iste, irono 

First fut. I shall go out, #c...usc-iro, irai, ira,iremo,irete, iranno 
Subj. pres. / may go out, fyc. ..esca, esca, esca, usciamo, usciate, 

escano 
Imperfect. I might go out, Sec .usc-lssi, issi, isse, issimo, iste, issero 
Conditional. / should go out, #c..usc-irei, iresti, irebbe, iremmo, 

ireste, irebbero 
Imperative, go thou out, #c. esci, esca, usciamo, uscite, escano 

Put uscito to the simple tenses of essere, and you will 
have all the compound tenses. 

The following verb is conjugated like uscire : — 
e riusc-ire., to succeed 



200 



OF IRREGULAR VERBS IN ire. 



Venire. 



Inf. to come venire 

conjugated with essere 



Ind. pres. 



Ger. coming.., .venendo 
Part, come venuto 



/ come, Sf-c vengo,vieni, viene, veniamo, venf te ? 

vengono 

First imp. I came, fyc ven-ivo, ivi,iva,ivamo,ivate, ivano 

Sec. imp. Icame^fyc venni, venisti, venne, venimmo, 

venlste, vennero 

First fut. I shall come, fyc ....verro, verrai, verra, verremo, ver- 

rete, verra nno 

Subj. pres. I may come, fyc venga, venga, venga, veniaino, ve- 

niate, vengano 

Imperfect. / might come, 8$c. .. ven issi, issi, isse, issimo, iste, issero 

Conditional. / should come, #c..verrei, verresti, verrebbe, verrem- 

mo, verreste, verrebbero 

Imperative, come thou, fyc vieni, venga, veniamo, venite, ven- 
gano 

Put venuto to the simple tenses of essere^ and you will 
have all the compound tenses : — 

The following verbs are conjugated like venire : — 



eaddiven...ire....fo become 

e avven ire ...Jo happen 

aecouven ....ire....to agree 

<?diven ive....to become 

inven \ve....tofind 

pre ven ire.. ..to anticipate 



proven ....ire... Jo derive 
e rinven . . . . ire.. . . to recover one's 

senses 
driven .. ,. ..ire.. ..to come back 
e sven ire . , . . to faint aioayi 



Section XL 

OF DEFECTIVE VERBS. 



Defective verbs, verbi difettivi, are those which are 
used only in some of their moods, tenses, and persons; 
but as the greatest part of these verbs is used in poetry 
only, we refer the student to the Dictionary of Poetical 
Licences. 



OF PASSIVE VERBS. 201 

Section XII. 

OF PASSIVE VERBS. 

The passive verbs are formed by putting the participle 
of any verb, either regular or irregular, wrth the verb 
essere, to be, when the said participle is to agree with its 
subject or nominative in gender and number. Ex. 

Infinitive present.... £o be loved ess ere amato 

Gerund present being loved essendo amato 

Participle been loved stato amato 

Infinitive past to have been loved. .essere stato amato 

Gerund past having been loved.. essendo stato amato 

INDICATIVE. 

Present Tense. 

Sing. lam loved , sono amato 

thou art loved sei amato 

he is loved e amato 

Plur. we are loved siamo amati 

you are loved siete amati 

they are loved sono amati 

First Imperfect. 

Sing. I was loved ero amato 

thou wast loved eri amato 

he was loved ..era amato 

Plur. we were loved eravamo amati 

you were loved eravate amati 

they were loved erano amati 

Second Imperfect. 

Sing. I was loved .......fui amato 

thou wast loved fosti amato 

he was loved fu amato 

Plur. we were loved fummo amati 

you were loved foste amati 

they were loved f tirono amati 

k3 



202 OF PASSIVE VERBS. 

First Future. 

Sing. I shall be loved sard amato 

thou wilt be loved sarai amato 

he ivill be loved sara amato 

Plur. iv e shall be loved saremo amati 

you will be loved sarete amati 

they will be loved . saranno amati 

Perfect. 

Sing. I have been loved sono stato amato 

thou hast been loved sei stato amato 

he has been loved e stato amato 

Plur. we have been loved siamo stati amati 

you have been loved ...... ..siete stati amati 

they have been loved. sono stati amati 

And so on of all the other tenses. 



Section XIII, 

OF NEUTElt VERBS. 

Some of these verbs are conjugated with avere, and 
others with essere, and some of them with either. When 
they are conjugated with avere, their participles are in- 
declinable ; when with essere, they are declinable, and 
are to agree with the subject of the verb ; as, she has 
lived, ella ha dimorato, or ella e dimorata. 

These verbs end, like the active, in are, ere, ire; but 
when they end in arsi, ersi, irsi, they are called neuter 
passive, otherwise reflective ; which see. 



Section XIV. 



OF REFLECTIVE VERBS. 



Reflective verbs, instead of are, ere, ire, are termi- 
nated in arsi, ersi, irsi ; and by their terminations it is 
easily seen to which conjugation they belong. Thus, 



OF REFLECTIVE VERBS, 203 

those ending in arsi belong to the first conjugation ; those 
in ersi> to the second ; and those in irsi, to the third. 

These verbs have also their irregular ones, and then 
they are conjugated accordingly. 

These verbs are conjugated with the particles rni, ti, 
si, ci, vi, si, as follows : — 

Rallegrarsi. 



Inf. to rejoice. . . . rallegrarsi 
conjugated with essere 



Ger. rejoicing. .rallegrandosi 
Part, rejoiced. ..rallegratosi 



Ind. pres. I rejoice, fyc mirallegro, ti rallegri, si rallegra, 

ci rallegriamo, vi rallegrate, si 
rallegrano 

First imp. I rejoiced, fyc mi rallegravo, ti rallegravi, si ral- 

legrava, ci rallegravamo, vi ral- 
legravate, si rallegravano 

Sec. imp. I rejoiced, S^c mi rallegrai, ti rallegrasti, si ralle- 

gro, ci rallegrammo, vi ralle- 
graste, si rallegrarono 

First fut. I shall rejoice, S^cmi rallegrero, ti rallegrerai, si ral- 

legrera, ci rallegreremo, vi ralle- 
grerete, si rallegreranno 

Perfect. I have rejoiced, #c..mi sono rallegrato, ti sei rallegrato, 

si e rallegrato, ci siamo ralle- 
grati, vi siete rallegrati, si sono 
rallegrati 

Subj, pres. I may rejoice, §c. .mi rallegri, ti rallegri, si rallegri, 

ci rallegriamo, vi rallegriate, si 
rallegrino 

Imperfect. I might rejoice, fyc.xm rallegrassi, ti rallegrassi, si ral- 

legrasse, ci rallegrassimo, vi ral- 
legraste, si rallegrassero 

Conditional. I should rejoice, #c..mi rallegrerei, ti rallegreresti, si 

rallegrerebbe, ci rallegreremmo, 
vi rallegrereste, si rallegrereb- 
bero 

Imperative, rejoice thou, fyc... ..rallegrati, si rallegri, rallegriamoci, 

rallegratevi, si rallegrino 

And so on of all the other compound tenses. 



204 OF REFLECTIVE VERBS. 

If the verb begins with a vowel, m, f, s r r ci, xf, $% 
are to be used, as in ahbdssarsi, to stoop. 

Ind. pres. I stoop, fyc nT abbasso, t' abbassi, s' abbassa 9 

ci abbassiamo, v' abbassate, 
s' abbassono 

Ci, however, is not abridged, unless the verb begins 
with e or i, as in estendersi, to extend ; and ingerirsi, to 
meddle. 

Ind. pres. I extend, fyc m' estendo, t' estendi, s' estende, 

c estendiamo, v* estendete, s' es- 
tenciono 

Ind. pres. I meddle, tyc m 5 ingerisco, t' ingerisci, s' inge- 

risce, c' ingeriamo, v' ingerite, 
s' ingeriscono 

To form the compound tenses of reflective verbs, 
essere is to be employed, and not avere. 

All active verbs may become reflective by conjugating 
them with mi, ti, si, ci, vi, si, and essere, in the com- 
pound tenses. 



Section XV. 



OF RECIPROCAL VERBS. 



Grammarians have confounded these verbs with the 
reflective ones ; but if we properly consider their nature, 
we shall plainly see that the reciprocal verbs are entirely 
different from the reflective. The reflective verbs are 
those that express an action in which the agent acts, 
and is acted upon bf himself; as, io mi amo, I love 
myself; ci siamo amati, we have loved ourselves, &c. 
The reciprocal verbs, on the contrary, are those that 
require two agents who act upon one another, and on 
that account they have no singular. How, then, can 
reciprocal be called reflective, and reflective reciprocal ? 



OF RECIPROCAL VERBS. 205 

Reciprocal verbs, though conjugated with reflective 
particles, are different from the reflective verbs, and have 
no singular. As, therefore, these verbs have no sin- 
gular, they are conjugated in the plural with only ci, vi, 
si ; which particles, (different from those of the reflec- 
tive verbs that signify ourselves, yourselves , and them* 
selves?) are expressed by each other. The following 
parallel will shew the difference which exists between 
reflective and reciprocal verbs. 

REFLECTIVE VERBS. RECIPROCAL VERBS. 

we love ourselves we love each other 

noi ci amiamo noi ci amiarno 

we have loved ourselves we have loved each other 

noi ci siamo amati noi ci abbiamo amati 3s 

you beat yourselves you beat each other 

voi vi battete voi vi battete 

you have beaten yourselves you have beaten each other 

voi vi siete battuti voi vi avete battuti 



The simple tenses of the above examples being alike, 
shew no difference between the reflective and the reci- 
procal verbs, consequently the sentence is rendered 
doubtful ; for we, on hearing ci amiarno, cannot distin- 
guish whether people love each other, or each loves 
himself; but the compound tenses being conjugated with 
different verbs, shew clearly the difference which exists 
between them. For, in saying ci siamo battuti, we can 
easily discern that each has beaten himself, as people do 
when they scourge themselves ; and ci abbiamo battuto 
shews that they have acted, and been acted upon by 
each other, as people do when they fight. 

With regard to the auxiliary verb with which the 
reciprocal verbs are to be conjugated, it is our intention 
to give the preference to avere, for the reason above 
mentioned. But as Italians in familiar conversation 
make use of essere, and as we could find but two exam- 
ples in ancient authors, one with avere, and the other 
with essere, we say it is better to conform to custom. 



206 OF RECIPROCAL VERBS. 

One of the above mentioned examples is taken from 
Livy, translated by J. Passavanti. 

Volendo parlamentdre insieme Scipione e Annibale. . . 
fecero stare a drieto loro compagnia armdta, ed eglino 
soli con due interpreti s 1 avvisdrono insieme ; e come s* eb- 
bero Yefrati... prima tacettero, poi Annibale... disse, ecc. 
Scipio and Hannibal wishing to have a conference to- 
gether, left their army behind, and with two interpreters 
proceeded to a place of rendezvous ; and when they had 
looked at each other, they were silent at first, and then 
Hannibal said, &c. 

The other is taken from B. 56. 

Costoro . . .son giovani eke lungamente si sono amdti in- 
sieme. These... are young people who have for a long 
time loved each other. 

If Boccaccio in this example had left out insieme, 
the sentence would be obscure ; whereas, if he had said, 
die lungamente si Jianno amati, insieme would not have 
been necessary. 

We conclude this section by saying, that if reciprocal 
verbs are conjugated with essere, they are the same as 
the reflective, but have no singular ; and we think that 
it is on that account that grammarians have confounded 
them with reflective verbs. 



Section XVI. 



OF IMPERSONAL VERBS. 



These verbs, as we said, page 112, are of three 
sorts. 

The first sort contains all the verbs that are imper- 
sonal by nature ; as, it rains, piove ; it lightened, baleno ; 
it will thunder, iuonera. They are called absolute, 
because they have no need of any other part of speech 
to complete the sense. 

The second sort comprehends verbs that may be con- 
jugated with or without the particles mi, ti, si, gli, le, 



OF IMPERSONAL VERBS. 207 

ci 9 vi 9 loro, which are put before the third person sin- 
gular, and in some cases the third person plural ; as,. I 
care, mi cale ; thou thmkest, ti pare ; he likes, gli place. 
Some of these verbs are called half impersonal, because 
they are accompanied with other parts of speech to com- 
plete the sense. 

The third sort consists of all those verbs which, being 
active or neuter, are rendered impersonal by putting si 
before the third person singular or plural, or una before 
the third person singular only ; as, it is said, si dice ; 
they are praised,, si lodano ; it is remembered, uno si 
ricorda, &c. 

CONJUGATION OF THE VERBS OF THE FIRST SORT, 

These verbs have only the third person singular, as 
in English. Their auxiliary verb is essere^ though in 
familiar conversation avere is made use of; we, however, 
advise the student to conjugate them with essere. 



Inf. to lighten.... balenare 
conjugated with essere 



Ger. lightening ..balenando 
Part, lightened. . . . balenato 



Ind. pres. it lightens egli balena 

First imp. it lightened egli balenava 

Sec. imp. it lightened egli baleno 

First fut. it will lighten egli balen era. 

Subj. pres. it may lighten egli baleni 

Imperfect, jt might lighten egli balenasse 

Conditional, it woidd lighten egli balenerebbe 

No imperative 

Put balenato to the simple tenses of essere ', and you 
will find the compound tenses. 

It is to be observed that egli may be used at 
pleasure. 

CONJUGATION OF THE VERBS OF THE SECOND SORT. 

Some of these verbs have the third person singular, 
and some both the singular and the plural ; sometimes 
they are conjugated by putting the dative of the con- 



£08 OF IMPERSONAL VERBS. 

junctive pronouns before the said third person, and 
sometimes without it, according to the sense of the sen- 
tence ; as, mi pare cV egli abbiajreddo, I think he is 
cold ; or, pare cli egli abhia Jreddo, he seems to be cold. 
And, again : — gli accaddero molte sciagure, many misfor- 
tunes befel him ; or, accaddero molie sciagure, there 
happened many misfortunes. 



Inf. to like pi acere 

conjugated with essere 



Ger. /i&g....piacendo 
Part, liked piaciuto 



Ind. pres. Hike, §c mi piace, ti piace, gli piace, le piace, 

ci piace, vi piace, piace loro 

First imp. Hiked, fyc mi, ti, gli, le, ci, vi, piaceva loro 

Sec. imp. I liked, fyc mi, ti, gli, le, ci, vi, piacqueloro 

First fut. I shall like, fyc mi, ti, gli, le, ci, vi, piacera loro 

Subj. pres. I may like, fyc mi, ti, gli, le, ci, vi, piaccia loro 

Imperfect. I might like, fyc ..mi, ti, gli, le, ci, vi, piacesse loro 
Conditional. I shoidd like, fyc. ...mi, ti, gli, le, ci, vi, piacerebbe 

loro 

Fut piaciuto to the simple tenses of essere, and you 
will have all the compound tenses. 

Observations. 

1. As the verbs of the second sort in English are 
generally personal, it is necessary, in translating from 
English into Italian, to change the English nominative 
into the dative, and the English accusative into the 
nominative in Italian ; as, I like him, change the nomi- 
native / into the dative, and you will find to vie. 
Again : — change him, accusative, intQ nominative, and 
you will find lie ; make like agree with he, and you will 
find he likes to me, egli mi place ; and so on of all the 
other verbs. 

2. When one of these verbs is followed by other 
verbs, the English nominative is to be put after the verb 
in Italian. Thus, I must go, turn, it must that I go, 
bisogna or conviene che io vdda ; he must speak, turn, 
it must that he speaks, bisogna che egli paiii, &c. 



OF IMPERSONAL VERBS. 209 



CONJUGATION OF THE VERBS OF THE THIRD SORT. 

Some of these have the third person singular, before 
which si or uno is put, as we have said. 



Inf. to be said... .dirsi 

conjugated with essere 



Ger. being said. . dicendosi 
Part, been said... dzttosi 



\[nd. pres. it is said si dice 

First imp. it was said si diceva 

Sec. imp. it was said si disse 

First fut. it will be said si dira, &c. 



Observations. 

1. These verbs are to be conjugated always with 
essere, and never with avere. 

2. The English of these verbs is always thus : — it is 
known, it was said, it will be done, &c. In this case, 
when the student is to translate into Italian, he is to 
change it is, it was, it shall be, and all the simple tenses 
of to be, into si, and the participle is to be put in the 
same tense as those of to be are. Thus : — it is said ; 
change it is into si, put said in the same tense as it is is, 
which will be says, and you will find si dice. It was 
known ; change it was into si, put known in the same 
tense as it was is, which will be knew, and you will find 
si sapeva± and so on of all the other tenses. 

3. If a tense of the verb to be were to be expressed by 
two verbs in Italian, one finite, and another infinitive, 
such as, it may be, pud essere; it could be, poteva es- 
sere, &c. the student has nothing to do but to trans- 
late may, could, &c. as it is in English, to change be, 
which in this case is but an infinitive, into si, and put 
the following participle in the infinitive, because be is 
infinitive. Thus :— it may be known ; it may, being the 
third person singular of the present tense of potere, is 



210 OF IMPERSONAL VERBS. 

changed into pud, be into si, and known into the infini- 
tive sapere ; and the phrase is si pud sapere, or pud 
sapersi. And again : — it might be said ; it might, being 
the third person singular of the imperfect tense of potere, 
is changed into poteva, be into si, and said into the in- 
finitive dire, and the phrase is si poteva dire, or poteva 
dirsi. , 

4. If a conjunctive pronoun happens to be with the 
above verbs, it is to precede si ; as, it is told me, or I 
am told, mi si dice ; it was told him, or he was told, gli 
si diceva. 

5. If the relative ne happens to be with these verbs, 
si is changed into se, and ne is to follow ; as — 

it is spoken of sene parla 

it was spoken of sene parlava, &c* 

6. When a verb is naturally reflective, it cannot be 
made impersonal with the particle si, as above, but 
by putting uno before the third person singular only ; 
as, it is remembered, uno si ricorda, and not si si 
ricorda. 



A LIST OF THE IMPERSONAL VERBS, 

Absolute. 



aggiornare ...Jo dawn 
annottare .....to grow dark 

balenare to lighten 

diluviare to pour 

dimdjare to thaw 

gelare to freeze 



gran din are.. ..to hail 
lampeggiare ..to lighten 

nevicare to snow 

piovere to rain 

piovigginare ..to drizzle 
tuonare .to thunder 



To which may be added fare, with all the w r ords ex- 
pressive of the weather, such as caldo, warm ; Jreddo, 
cold ; oscuro, dark, &c. 



OF IMPERSONAL VERBS. 



211 



Half Impersonal. 



accadere to < 

appartenere ..to i 

arrivare to « 

awenire to > 

bisognare ....to I 

calere to \ 

con venire 

dispiacere...... 

fare d' uopo, ^ 
fare mestiere, \ i 
or mestieri, f 
#rdimestierij 



happen 


fare uopo «. 


,..to 


belong 


importare.. 


..to 


arrive 


increscere . 


...to 


happen 


lecere 


..to 


behove 


piacere 


..to 


matter 


rmcrescere. 


..to 


to be necessary 


spettare 


..to 


to displease 


spiacere .... 


..to 




toccare..... 


to 


to be necessary 







be necessary 
matter 
be sorry 
be lawful 
1 please 
be sorry 
belong 
displease 
belong 



H12 OF THE PARTICIPLE. 



CHAPTER VI. 

OF THE PARTICIPLE. 

The participle, participio, is a certain form of the 
verb, apd derives its name from its participating not 
only in the properties of a verb, but also in those of an 
adjective. As a verb it expresses an action, and may or 
may not have an object, according to the nature of the 
verb from which it is derived ; and, as an adjective, it 
expresses a quality, thus : — amdnte una donna, loving a 
woman : ho amdio una donna, I have loved a woman ; 
Jw veduto un uomo, I have seen a man. Amante, amato, 
and veduto, which are derived from amare, to love, and 
vedere, to see, are participles, because they express an 
action. But if we say un uomo amante, a loving man, 
%m cuore amato, a beloved heart, una donna stimata, an 
esteemed woman ; amante, amato, and stimata, though 
derived from amare., to love, and stimare, to esteem, are 
participial adjectives, because they qualify the substan- 
tives uomo, cuore, and donna. 



Section I. 

There are two participles ; the present, as, gridante, 
crying, tenente, holding ; and the past, as, cantato, sung, 
veduto, seen, sentito, heard. 

Agreeably to the general practice of grammarians, 
we represent the present participle as active, because it 
expresses, as we said, an action ; and the past, both as 
active and passive. The past is conjugated with the 
auxiliary verbs essere, to be, and avere, to have. When 
with avere it is active, and when with essere it is passive; 
as, lio amato una donna, I have loved a woman ; sono 
amato da una donna, I am loved by a woman. In the 



OF THE PARTICIPLE. 213 

first example amato is active, because it is conjugated 
with avere, or because the action of the subject passes 
upon the object ; and in the second example amato is 
passive, because it is conjugated with essere, or because 
the subject is acted upon by the object. 

Sometimes the participle in Italian is found without 
the auxiliary verb, but that is understood ; as, ilfiglw, 
trovato il padre ', pianse, the son, having found his father, 
wept ; ilfiglio, trovato dal padre, si r allegro, the son, 
being found by his father, rejoiced. In the first example 
avendo is understood, and in the second essendo. 



Genders of the Participle, 

The present participle is of both genders, and makes 
its plural in i. The past ends in o, and by changing o 
into a the feminine is formed : their plural is in i for the 
masculine, and in e for the feminine. Ex. 

uomo e donna amante loving man and ivoman 

uomini e donne amanti men and women who love 

uomo amato, donna amata beloved man, beloved ivoman 

uomini amati, donne amate ....beloved men, beloved women 



OF THE FORMATION OF PARTICIPLES. 

The participles are formed from the infinitives by 
changing are into ante, and ere and ire into ente, for the 
present. Thus: — gridare, to cry, gridante, crying, te- 
nere, to hold, tenente, holding, morire, to die, morenie, 
dying; and the past are formed by changing are of the 
first conjugation into ato, ere of the second into uto, and 
ire of the third into ito, for regular verbs ; as, amare, to 
love, amato, loved, temere, to fear, temuto, feared, Jinire, 
to finish, finito, finished. There are a great many other 
participles which end in different ways, but we refrain 
from putting them down, as they have been treated of 
in the conjugation of verbs. There are, however, 



$14 OF THE PARTICIPLE. 

several of the first conjugation, which are syncopated in 
tfye following manner : — 

acconcio....for ....acconciato .fitted 

adorno adornato adorned 

asciutto asciuttato dried 

avvezzo avvezzato accustomed 

carico caricato laden 

cerco ....cercato soughtfor 

compro comprato bought 

concio conciato .fitted 

desto destato awaken 

dimentico dimenticato .forgotten 

gonfio gonfiato swelled 

guasto guastato spoiled 

lacero lacerato torn 

macero macerato soaked 

manifesto manifestato manifested 

mozzo ^. mozzato cut off 

rietto nettato wiped 

noto notato noted 

pago pagato paid 

pesto pestato pounded 

privo privato deprived 

racconcio racconciato .fitted up 

rasciutto rasciuttato dried up again 

salvo salvato saved 

scemo scemato lessened 

sconcio sconciato spoiled 

secco.. seccato dried 

stanco stancato wearied out 

tocco toccato -.touched 

tronco troncato cut off 

trovo ......trovato found 

volto voltato turned 

voto votato ..*,..,.e7uptied 



Observations. 

1, These participles, though syncopated, are subject 
to the same inflexions as the others which are not so ; 
thus, adorno, adorna^ adorni, adorne, compro , compra, 
compri, compre. 



OF THE PARTICIPLE. 215 

2. These participles are used in prose and poetry, but 
seldom in familiar conversation. 

3. These participles are the same as the first person 
of the present tense of the indicative ; thus, cerco> 
sought, io cerco, I seek, compro, bought, io compro, 
I buy, &e. 

4. It is not with all the verbs of the first conjugation- 
that this alteration can be made, but only with some 
particular verbs, which may be learned by reading the 
classics. We, however, have put down those few to 
shew their nature, and now we will give a few examples 
taken from Boccaccio. 

B. 4, 6. Di qui alia porta della sua cdsa ha poca via, 
e percio tu ed io, cost come accdncio Vabbiamo, qiiivi il 
porter emo ; it is not far from hence to his house, whither 
we can easily carry him, as we have set him up. 

B. 3. 7. Per die. essendo desto gli parve...se?itire .. 
scendere netla casa, persone ; for as he was awake, he 
thought he heard people descending into the house. 

B. 9. 6. E quasi desls. fosse per Jo rornore del martio, il 
chiamo ; and seeming as if she had awaked by the noise 
of her husband, she called out to him. 

B. 9- 6. La donna, avendo cerco, e trovato. che quello 9 
cite cadido era, non era tal cosa, non si curd d y altru 
menti accendere lume ; the good woman having searched, 
and finding what was thrown down to be of no moment, 
did not trouble herself to strike a light. 

B. 3 2. Avendone adunque il re molii cerchi, ecc. the 
king, therefore, having tried a great many of them, &c. 

B. 4. 1 0. Avvenne che al medico fu messo tra le mdni 
uno inftrmo, il quale aveva guasto Tuna delle gdmbe ; it 
happened that the doctor was sent for by a patient who 
had broken one of his legs. 



216 OF THE PARTICIPLE. 

B. 3. 9. Avendo la donna tutto racconcio il paese, 
per due cavalieri al conte signified, ecc. ; the lady having 
settled every thing, sent two knights to the count to 
desire, &c. 

B. 4. 1. La qual, poiche ebbe pianto, alzato il capo, e 
rasciuttosi gli occhj, disse ; who, after she had wept, 
raised up her head, and having wiped her tears, she 
said. 



OF ADVERBS. 217 

CHAPTER VII. 

OF ADVERBS. 

Ax adverb, avverbio, is a part of speech joined to a 
verb, an adjective, and sometimes to another adverb, to 
express some quality or circumstance respecting it ; as, 
egli pd?ia bene^ he speaks well ; egli e veramente ditto, 
he is truly a learned man ; egli cammma molto bine^ he 
walks very well. 

Adverbs seem originally to have been contrived to 
express compendiously in one word what must otherwise 
have required two or more ; as, egli cdnta dolcemente, 
for egli cdnta con dolcezza, he sings sweetly ; ella suona 
graziosamente, for ella suona congrdzia, she plays grace- 
fully. 

There are many words which are sometimes used as 
adjectives, and sometimes as adverbs ; as, vi era-no ivi 
piil udmmi die ddnne, there were more men than women ; 
piil an adjective: or egli e piil dbile di lei, he is more 
clever than she is ; piil an adverb. There are others 
that are sometimes used as substantives, and sometimes 
as adverbs ; as, la colazione di stamattina rum e stata 
coil buona come quella di jeri, this morning's breakfast 
was not so good as that of yesterday. Stamattina and 
Jeri, two substantives, not adverbs, because they admit 
of the genitive case, di stamattina, and dijeri. Egli ne 
mangio molto jeri, e mangerdnne piil anche stamattina, 
he ate a great deal of it yesterday, and he will also eat 
more this morning. In this sentence, stamattina and 
jeri are decidedly adverbs of time, because they answer 
to the question, quando, when. Finally, there are others 
which may be used as adjectives, substantives and ad- 
verbs ; as, il molto non vale nulla qudndo e cattivo, much 
is worth nothing when it is bad ; molto, a substantive : 
hanno mangidto molto pane, they have eaten much bread ; 
molto an adjective : egli e molto meglio piangere che rider e* 
qudndo si ride in vdno, it is much better to cry than to 
laugh, when we laugh in \ain ; molto an adverb. 

L 



218 OF ADVERBS. 

There are some adverbs which are used also for 
prepositions, but we shall speak of them in treating of 
the prepositions. 



Section I. 

OF THE FORMATION OF ADVERBS. 

Adverbs are formed from adjectives in three ways, 
viz. — 

1. By changing the last letter of adjectives ending in 
o, into amente ; as — 

dott-o learned dott-amente learnedly 

saggi-o wise ....saggi-amente wisely 

vano vain van-amente vainly 

% By adding rnente to those ending in £, when e is 
not preceded by the letter I ; as — 

felice happy felicemente happily 

prudente . ..prudent prudentemente ..prudently 

diligente. . . . diligent diligentemente. . . diligently 

3. By changing the e of those ending in le into mente ; 
as— 

agil-e quick agilmente quickly 

facil-e easy facilmente easily 

mirabil-e.. .. wonderful ...mirabilmente ....wonderfully 

Except male, bad, which makes malamente> badly. 

Some adverbs, like adjectives, have a comparative 
and superlative. 

There are some which, by particular expressions, 
become comparative and superlative, such as bene, 
well ; megliO) better ; ottimamente, extremely well ; but 
except these, they generally become comparatives by 
putting piu or meno before them ; and by changing 



OF ADVERBS. 219 

amente and emente into issimamente^ they become super- 
latives; as — 

facilmente easily 

piu facilimente more easily 

facilissimarnente very ea " 



We cannot set them down at length for the benefit of 
the student ; but as a great number of them is formed 
from adjectives, as we said above, and as adverbs are 
numerous in Italian, we will give a list of those only 
which are composed of two or more words, and are there- 
fore difficult to be found in any dictionary. 

As the adverbs are very numerous in the Italian lan- N 
guage, a list of them all would occupy a great many 
pages in our volume; and if we have set down almost 
all the verbs in the preceding pages, it was because we 
deemed it necessary to know the difference which exists 
between them in point of conjugation. With regard to 
the adverbs it is different, because those formed from 
adjectives need not be inserted, as the student may form 
them by himself. Those of one word may be found in 
any dictionary, but those which consist of two or more 
words do not so easily occur ; and these adverbs we will 
set down in classes, for the convenience and use of the 
student. 



I. Adverbs of Number. 

tre volte thrice 

quattro volte. .four times 

And so on of all numbers with volte. 



unavolta once 

due volte twice 



II. Adverbs of Order. 



alia rinfusa topsy turvy 

a uno a uno one by one 

a due a due two by two 

a vicenda alternately 

dalle fonda- ) from thefounda- 

menta .... 5 tion 
di seguito.. ...... afterwards 



in fila in a row 

in seguito afterwards 

primieramente .. ..firstly 
secondariamente. . secondly 
in terzo luogo ....thirdly 
in quarto luogo.. ..fourthly 

sossopra topsy turvy 

l2 



220 



OF ADVERBS. 



Ill, Adverbs of Place. 



a canto, or ac- > ^ ^ ^ 

canto 5 •* 

a parte, or da ) ^ 

parte $ 

al di la beyond 

a destra on the right 

a sinistra on the left 

daognidove \ ^ ^ s 
da ogm parte S 

fV ert ?«°~ I every where 
dappertutto .. S * 

di dietro .from behind 

di dove whence 

di li, la ./row thence 

di qui, qua .from hence 

in giro round aboup 

da lontano.. .. ^ifrom afar, or a£ 

di lontano .... > a distance 



al riparo under shelter 

di qua on this side 

d'intorno all around 

di sotto under 

fin la as far as tliere 

in disparte . aside 

in giu down 

in su above 

la giu, or \aggm.. below there 

per dove through 

per di fuori ...... without 

per di la through that side 

qua e la.. ....... .here and there 

da banda aside 

qui vicino near here 

sin dove how far 

al coperto under shelter 



IV. Adverbs of Time. 

ad osni momento } 

j ' • • *£«+« J ewry moment 

ad ogni istante S * 

a domani dunque to morrgw then 

all' avvenire in future 

alle volte sometimes 

altre volte .formerly 

a mezzo giorno twelve o'clock in the day, or 

mid-day 
a mezza notte twelve o'clock at night, or 

mid-night 

al piu presto at the soonest 

al far del giorno at the break of day 

alio spun tar del sole .'.. at sunrise 

al tramontar del sole at sunset 

.? i at leisure 

con tempo $ 

d'allora in poi since then 

da poco in qua not long since 

di buon' ora early 

di bel nuovo again 

di botto suddenly 

di continuo contiiiually 

di fresco .recently 



OF ADVERBS. 221 



Adverbs of Time — continued. 

di di in di } /. , . , 

di giorno in giorno V rom *» *> *» 

di giorno..... &y d<2^ 

d 1 inverno in winter 

di notte ), . *, 

di notte tempo \hmgU 

di rado seldom 

di state in summer 

di quando in quando > - ,< . .• 

J- ;**_ - ■ % } from time to time 

di tempo in tempo y 

d' ora innanzi henceforward 

domani a otto to-morrow week 

domani a quindici to-morrow fortnight 

doman l'altro the day after tomoirow 

e gran pezzo "^ 

e lungapezza ! • . . 7 .. 

^molto.. Ut is a long time 

e un pezzo J 

fin adesso 



i hitherto 



fin a quest' ora 

fin d'adesso .from this moment 

fin ora * hitherto 

fra poco ina short time 

il piu sovente e oftener 

in avvenire in future 

in breve ) , , 7 

in breve tempo \ short ^ 

in quel mentre liin the meantime 

in questo istante } 

in questo momento >this moment 

in questo punto 3 

in te'mpo seasonably 

in un batter d' occhio all of a sudden 

in un attimo allot once 

jer T altro the day before yesterday 

jer sera yesterday evening 

jer mattina yesterday morning 

Faltro jeri the day before yesterday 

nei tempi andati „ .formerly 

ptr g ^r::::::::::::::::S^^^^ 

oggi a otto this day week 

oggi a quindici „ this day fortnight 

oggi a ventidue three weeks hence 

or ora M4 directly 



OF ADVEKBS. 

Adverbs of Time — continued. 

per tempo ...„ early 

piu che mai more than ever 

poco fa a little while ago 

posdomani the day after to-morrow 

quanto prima as soon as possible 

questamane > ,,. 

Jiestamattina \ thu mornm S 

questa notte to night 

questa sera this evening 

rade volte seldom 

sin a quando till when 

stamane > ,,. 

stamattina \ th ™ mormn S 

sta notte ...tonight 

sta sera this evening 

tal volta some times 

tempo gia fu .formerly 

tratto tratto .from time to time 

tutto ad un tratto all at once 

V. Adverbs of Quantity. 

circa about 

davvantaggio J) 

dipiu > some more 

di vantaggio ) 

per meta by half 

presso a poco near abouts 

un pochettino a little 

un poco di piu a little more 

un poco di meno a little less 

un po' troppo , a little too muck 

un tantino a little 



VI. Adverbs of Quality. 

a briglia sciolta at full speed 

a buon grado willingly 

a caso by chance 

a caso pensato wilfully 

a dirotte lagrime bitterly 

a gara in emulation 

al balzo at the rebound 

alia royescia ..Jopsy turvy 



OF ADVERBS. 223 



Adverbs of Quality — continued. 

alia sprovf sta unprovided 

alia smascellata with open mouth 

all' improvviso suddenly 

all' indietro backward 

alia sfuggita by stealth 

al piu at the most 

a mente by heart 

a prova in emulation 

a rovescio topsy turvy 

a spron battuto .full speed 

a tentone groping along 

a vista insight 

colle buone willingly 

colle cattive ....against one's will 

con arte artfully 

con fretta hastily 

con ragione rightly 

con tutto il cuore willingly 

da banda a banda through 

daddovvero } 

da dovvero > in good earnest 

da senno ) 

da parte a parte through 

di buon grado I .77. 1 

di buonavoglia » $ ^^ 

di mala voglia against one's will 

di nascosto by stealth 

di caso pensato wilfully 

di tdtto cuore willingly 

di soppiatto by stealth 

d* un salto at one jump 

fuor di luogo unseasonably 

in che modo ) r , , , 

. \ after what manner 

in che maniera $ J 

in dubbio in doubt 

in fretta hastily 

in qual modo > r , h \, 

- * * '• after what manner 

in qual maniera S 

in sospeso in suspense 

in vano in vain 

mal volontieri unwillingly 

per aincre willingly 

per forza against ones will 



224 OF ADVERBS. 



VII. Adverbs of Doubt. 

ad ogni caso at all hazards 

ad ogni evento .... at all events 

forse ..... perhaps 

in ogni evento at all events 

per caso by chance 

potrebbe darsi it might be 

puo darsi > .. , 

r / \ it may be 

puo essere S 

VIII. Adverbs of Negation, 

in modo alcuno..... > 

in modo veruno 1 , 

. / \by no means 

in nessuna maniera f ^ 

in nessun modo J 

in niun conto ) , 

j 1 by no means 

in verun modo S 

niente affatto... ,....not at all 



IX. Adverbs of Affirmation. 

da galantuomo as a gentleman 

da uomo d' onore... as a gentleman of honour 

d'accordo in concert 

di certo certainly 

in coscienza onmy conscience 

in fatti infact 

in verita in truth 

nonv' e dubbio , ) . L • » *, 

,i , ,,. I there is no doubt 

non v ha dubbio > 

per certo certainly 

senza dubbio J 

senza fallo.. >without doubt or fail 

senza mancare 3 

sull T onor mio.... on my honour 



X. Adverbs of Interrogation. 

in che maniera? in what manner ? 

per qual ragione ? wherefore ? 



OF ADVERBS. 225 



XI. Adverbs of Comparison. 

assai piu stUimore 

assai meno ..much less 

piu tosto, or piuttosto rather 

, ' } much less 

vie meno S 

via piu still more 

viappiu } 

vie piu „ > still more 

vieppiu 3 



226 



OF PEEPOSITIONS, 



CHAPTER VIII. 



OF PREPOSITIONS. 



Prepositions, preposizioni, serve to connect words with 
one another, and to shew the relation between them. 
They are for the most part placed before nouns and 
pronouns ; as, io vddo in Italia, I am going to Italy ; 
ella e amata da lui, she is loved by him. In Italian 
there are some prepositions which govern the genitive, 
some the dative, others the accusative, others the abla- 
tive, others again two or three different cases, all of which 
are as follow :— 



Prepositions governing the Genitive. 



alato by the side 

al coperto under shelter 

al di dentro ....within 

al di fuori without 

al di sopra above 

al di sotto under 

allato by the side 

all' in torno around 

al riparo under shelter 

a motivo .for 

appie at the foot 

a ragione on account 

avanti ., before 

colPajuto by the aid 

col mezzo by means 

con animo ......with intention 

contro against 

di dentro .from inside 

di nasc6sto ...... unknown 



di la on that side 

di qua on this side 

dopo after 

fuor ) . 

fuori.... \ out 

in periglio in danger 

in presenza.. .. ..before 

in procinto on the point 

in vece instead 

malgrado in spite 

nel cospetto ..„in the presence 
per mancanza ..for want 
per rispetto ....on account 

prima before 

senza saputa .. ..unknown 

sotto under 

verso towards 

vicino near 



Prepositions governing the Dative. 



the side 



a canto ) , 

accanto > & 

all' intorno around 

appresso after 



avanti before 

con forme according 

contiguo contiguous 

dietro behind 



OF PREPOSITIONS. 



%n 



Prepositions governing the Dative— continued. 



d* intorno around 

dirimpetto opposite 

esclusi vamente . . except 

« n r [ till or until 

grazie.... thanks 

in capo at the end 

incontro against 

in faccia over against 

inferiore inferior 

i n n no I till or as far as 

in mezzo in the midst 

innanzi before 



in quanto as 

insin ) ,. 77 - 

. , > &// or as far as 

msmo 5 

oltre besides 

per fino <?w 

per mezzo through 

quanto as 

relativamente ...in relation 
riguardo with respect 

. v " > till or until 

sino S 

sotto under 

superiore superior 

vicino near 



Prepositions governing the Accusative. 



appre sso after 

circa thereabout 

con with 

contro against 

dopo „.... after 

durante during 

fra between 

giusta according 

in ...,in 

incirca thereabout 

innanzi before 

lungo along 

malgrado in spite 



mediante by 

non ostante .... besides 

oltre besides 

per .for 

rispetto concerning 

salvo except 

senza without 

sopra upon* 

sotto under 

tra between 

tranne except 

trattone except 

verso towards 



Prepositions governing the Ablative. 



di la on that side 

di qua on this side 

distante far 



fin ever 

lontano .far 

lungi distant 



It is to be observed, that many of these prepositions 
are also adverbs ; but it is easy to discover when they are 
adverbs and when prepositions, by paying attention to 
the cases that follow; as, vol avete parlato prima, epoi 
siete partito, you spoke first, and then went away. Prima 



228 OF PREPOSITIONS. 

is an adverb. Vol parldste prima di me, you spoke 
before me. Prima is a preposition, because followed by 
the genitive case which is governed by it. 

Sometimes prepositions seem to be adverbs, because 
the case which they govern is transposed before the 
verbs with which they are accompanied ; thus, non 
Tiii venite innanzi, do not come before me; but if the 
student turn the phrase thus, twn venite innanzi a me, 
he will soon see that innanzi is a preposition, governing a 
dative, 



OF CONJUNCTIONS. 229 



CHAPTER IX. 

OF CONJUNCTIONS. 

A conjunction, congiunzione^ is a part of speech that 
is chiefly used to connect sentences, so as out of ttvo 
or more sentences to make but one. It sometimes con- 
nects only words. 

As conjunctions answer to different operations of the 
mind, so they are divided into 

condizionali conditional 

sospensive suspensive 

domandative interrogative 

negative negative 

copulative copulative 

aggiun ti ve adjunctive 

eccettuative ) .exceptive 

dichiarative > declarative 

elettive elective 

disgiuntive disjunctive 

av versati ve contradictory 

collettive ) collective 

conclusive \ .. conclusive 

casuali casual 

limitative restrictive 

Some grammarians have divided them into ten sorts, 
others into twelve, others into twenty ; but as that does 
not give more light to the student, we content ourselves 
to follow Buommattei, as the most enlightened gram- 
marian of Italy. 

The conditional, which serve to connect sentences by 
condition, are — 

da che since restaasapereche.,& remains to 

ogni volta che ..whenever know 

perche because se ~ .....~....if 

poiche since sempre che always 

poscia che since si che ....... ...... *so that 

quando when 



230 



OP CONJUNCTIONS. 



The suspensive, that mark some suspension or doubt, 
are— 



a condizioneche on condition 

ancorch e altho ugh 

altriinciite otherwise 

ben inteso che ..provided 
con patto che... on condition 
con que'sto perd.ttwtf this how- 
ever 



da to che suppose 

in caso che in case 

posto che suppose 

purche provided 

quando when 

quand' linche ...a ti f hough 
se mai if ever 



The interrogative, which serve to ask, are- 



a che why 

che that 

come ....how 

non not 



o or 

perch e why 

per qnal mo tivo ) 7 r 
1 * . \ whereto) 

per qual ragione S 



The negative, that serve to deny, are- 



anzi nay 

non. ..no neither. ,. nor 



no. 



non not 

non gu\ not 

non ne none 



The copulative, that serve to connect words and 
sentences under the sairie affirmation or negation, 

are — ■ 

altresi but 

anche also 

anco also 

ancora yet 

che that 

e or ed and 

eziandio also 



nemfe " \norathcr 

neiniiicno S 

no...ne neither, nor 

won piii no longer 

siimlmente likewise 

tan to so much 



The adjunctive, that serve to add some other sentences 
to the fbreffoitlff, are — 



altresi but 

ancora yet 

appresso after 

di piu yet 



eziandio oho 

in oltre besides 

oltraccio ) , . , .»• . 

u , ; beside that 

oltre che S 



OF CONJUNCTIONS. 



231 



The exceptive or declarative, which serve either to 
restrict in some way or other an idea, or to explain it 
better, are — 

ammeno die ....unless , fuori out 

ancorche .. ...... although] in fuori except 

eccettuato except in poi afterwards 

fuorche except se non che unless 



The elective are — 

anzi che on the contrary 

anzi che no rather 

innanziche. .. .. ..rather 

meglio che better than 



phi che more than 

piuttosto che....ra^e?r than 
piu volontieri... more willingly 
prima che ..... ..before that 



The disjunctive, which serve to disjoin sentences, 
are — 



0...0 either. ..or 

oppure or 

o pure or 

ossia or 



o sia ..or 

owero.. or 

sia che, siache.. either, or 



The contradictory, which serve to contradict, are- 



ancorche though 

benche though 

comeche though 

ma but 

non di meno.. > ,-, 7 

j- / > nevertheless 

nondimeno ... S 

non per tanto ...not however 

perche because 



percio therefore 

per questo therefore 

per altro yet 

pure yet 

qualunque whatever 

se non unless 

tuttavia yet 



The collective or conclusive are- 



adunque then 

cosi thus 

dunque then 

di maniera che.. so that 

e cosi and so 

laonde , ,. ..therefore 



onde then 

per cio .for this 

per la qual cosa luherefore 

per tanto in the mean 

time 
in somma in short 



2S2 



OF CONJUNCTIONS. 



The casual are — 

a cagion e on condition 

accid che ..... ) . , j7 . 
amocche \^ order that 

a fine in order 

a fine che in order that 

affinche in order thai 

afFine in order 

Those that limit are — 

almeno at least 

d 'altronde besides 

non che .far from 

son me'no not less 

oltre di che .... besides 



che thai 

impercio che .... because 

per for 

perche because 

percid che therefore 

perocche therefore 

poscia che since 



per altro yet 

pure yet 

solamente only 

solo only 

tanto so much 



Observations. 

A particle may sometimes be used as an adverb, and 
sometimes as a proposition, occasionally as a pronoun, 
and sometimes as a conjunction, as will be shewn in the 
following examples. 

B. 6. 9. Comincidrono a dire, che quello, che egii 
aweva risposto, non veniva a dir nulla ; and they said that 
what he had spoken was without meaning. The first 
die is a conjunction, the second is a pronoun. 

B. % 5. Iddio mi liafatto tdnta grazia, che io anzi la 
mia morte ho veduto alcuni de y miei Jratelli ; God has 
been pleased to indulge me with the sight of one of my 
brothers before I die. Anzi, a preposition that governs 
the accusative, la mia morte. 

B. 6. beg. Attempatella era, e anzi superba che no; she 
was a little advanced in years, and rather proud. Anzi, 
an adverb, because it modifies the verb. 

B. 3. 1. Io era ben cos\, ma non per natura, anzi per 
mia infermita ; I was indeed not naturally so, but by a 
disease. Anzi, a conjunction, because it connects sen- 
tences. 



OF INTERJECTIONS. 



233 



CHAPTER X. 



OF INTERJECTIONS. 

Interjections, interiezioni^ are words thrown in be- 
tween the parts of a sentence, to express the passions or 
emotions of the speaker ; as, Avme ! Oh Dio ! &c. 

The Italian interjections, as well as those of other 
languages, are comprised within a small compass. They 
are of different sorts, according to the different passions 
which they serve to express. 

Those expressive of joy are — 



ewiva long live 

oh oh 



orsu now then 

viva . long live 



ah ahi 

ahi lasso .... 
aime, oime 



oh> alas, ah 



Of Grief. 

dolente me... ' 
meschino me. 
misero me.... 



unfortunate 
that I am 



doh, oh .....oh 

guarda look n(nu 



Of Anger. 

via, via come then 

puh poh 



gran Dio good Heaven 

oh Dio oh Heaven 



oh oh 

come puo €s- \ how can that 
ser questo.. S be 

Of Contempt. 

andate andate ..go go oh 

deh eh oibo... 

Of Approbation. 



Of Fear. 

oime ..alas 

sta ...stop 

Of Wonder. 

come how then 

possibile is it possible 



..ah 
..fie 



bene well 

bravo bravo 

buono good 



cosi so 

mi piace very well 

si yes 



234 



OF INTERJECTIONS. 



Of Negation. 

appunto exactly 

come how 

Dio mi guardi .. God forbid 
pensate .just 



no no 

non gia not so 

guarda ..look now 



Of Intreaty 

deh. ah qt pray 

di grazia pray 



merce . 



.mercy 



Of Calling. 



ajjuto help, help 

al fuoco .fire 

all' armi to arms 

badate beware 

guarda . .. ., beware 



largo make way 

oh, oh .... holla 

ola holla 

piano softly 



Of Command. 

alto halt 

cheto be quiet 

piano ..softly 



quieto be quiet 

zi hush 

zitto..... hush 



Besides these, many others, often in the mouths of the 
multitude, might be enumerated ; but those we have set 
down we think are sufficient. Any word or phrase may 
indeed become an interjection, or at least it may be used 
as such, when it is expressed with emotion, and in an 
unconnected manner ; as, ecco, behold ; ingrdto, un- 
grateful ; ed e possibile, is it possible ; che pazzia^ what 
a folly. 



END OF THE SECOND TAUT. 



OF SYNTAX IN GENERAL. 235 

PART III. 
OF SYNTAX IN GENERAL. 

Syntax, a Greek word, implying construction, is that 
disposition which the parts of speech ought to have with 
regard to each other. 

This construction in Italian is divided into simple 
and figurative. 

The simple, which is also called regular, is that con- 
struction which follows the natural order and the rules 
of grammar ; as — 

B. 9. 9. lo sort ricco, e spendo il mio in metter tavola, 
ed onoro i miei cittadini ; I am rich, and keep a most 
noble table to entertain all my fellow-citizens. 

The figurative, which is also called irregular, is that 
construction which departs from the natural order and 
the rules of grammar ; as — 

B. Fiam. E siccome la mia persona negli anni 
trapassati cresceva, cost le mie bellezze, de* miei mali 
special cagione, miiltiplicavano ; and as I grew up, 
so my beauty, the special cause of my misfortunes, 
increased. 

To make it regular it should be, E siccome la mia 
persona cresceva negli anni trapassati; cost le mie 
bellezze, cagione speciale de' miei mali, multipli- 
cavano. 

The regular syntax, or construction, (for of the figura- 
tive construction we shall speak hereafter,) is divided 
into three parts. The first, of order or arrangement ; the 
second, of concord or agreement ; and the third, of go- 
vernment or dependence. 

The syntax of order is the proper disposition of 
words in a sentence ; the syntax of concord is the agree- 



236 OF SYNTAX IN GENERAL. 

merit of the parts of speech with one another ; and the 
syntax of government is the dependence of one part of 
speech upon another. 

These three parts may be found in a simple sen- 
tence, which consists of the subject, which is the thing 
chiefly spoken of; the attribute, which is the thing or 
action affirmed or denied of it ; and the object, which is 
the thing affected by such action. 

In the sentence — 

L'uomo compassionevole ama i poveri, 
A compassionate man loves the poor — 

we see the right disposition of the words in the sentence, 
making a complete sense ; for it would not make any 
sense were the sentence to be turned thus — 

Compassionevole ama Puomo i poveri ; 

we find in it the concord of the parts of speech; for 
were we to say — 

L'uomo compassionevoli amano de' poveri, 

the parts of speech would not agree with each other, 
as uomo is a substantive singular, compassionevoli is an 
adjective plural, when it should be singular to agree 
with uomo, and de y poveri, genitive instead of accusative, 
which is the government of the active verb ; and finally, 
we find that i poveri, being the object, depends on the 
verb ama, by which it is governed. 



SYNTAX OF THE ARTICLE. 237 



CHAPTER L 

SYNTAX OF THOSE PARTS OF SPEECH WHICH MAY OR 
MAY NOT TAKE THE ARTICLE. 

When nouns are said to have no article, their oblique 
cases are declined with d% a, da. 

Before we treat of the rules of syntax, it is neces- 
sary to state that the phrases used throughout as exam- 
ples, which are selected from the works of the best 
Italian authors in prose, are not translated literally, 
but according to the English idiom, in order that the 
student may not only understand the sense of the 
phrases in question, but also learn to give to others that 
elegant turn which is consistent with the genius of the 
English language. 



RULE I. 

The definite article is put before all common nouns 
used in the whole extent of their signification, either 
general or specific. Ex. 

Buom. II giovamento die Tuomo pud cavar da una 
cosa consiste o nelV utile, o nel diletto ; the good which 
man can derive from any thing, consists in its utility or 
pleasure. 

Bent. Nonpotevala fort una riuscire piu Jhvorevole, 
die quando ha mostrato di volerci piil esser contraria ; 
fortune could not be more favourable to us than when 
she seemed to be most adverse. 

B. Introd. Gli uomini sono delle femmine capo^ e 
senza Tordine loro> rade volte riesce alcuna nostra opera 
a laudevole fine ; men are the head of women, and with- 
out their management it seldom happens that any under- 
taking of ours succeeds well. 



238 SYNTAX OF THE ARTICLE. 

Uomo,Jortuna, uomini, Jemmine, being used in the 
whole extent of their signification, take their respective 
articles. 

1. Common nouns taken in an indefinite sense, being 
either the subject or the object of the verb, may omit 
the article. 

B. 1.1. Che uomo e costui, il quale ne vecchiezza, ne 
infermita, ne paura di morte...dalla sua malvagitd Vhanno 
potuto rimuovere ; what a man this is ! whom neither age, 
sickness, nor fear of death... could deter from his wicked 
course. 

B. 4. 1. Esser ti deve, Tancredi, manifesto, essendo tu 
di came, aver generata figliuola di came, e non di 
pietra o dijerro ; you ought to know, Tancredi, that 
you, being made of flesh, have begotten a daughter of 
flesh, not of stone or iron. 

B. 3. 5. Spero, che non sqfferete, che io per tanto e tale 
amore, morte riceva per guiderdone ; I hope that the 
great love I bear you v/iil not be recompensed with 
death. 

B. 10. 1. Gliparve, che esso, or a ad uno, ed or a ad un 
altro donasse castella, citta, e baronie ; he saw that he 
gave away castles, cities, and baronies. 

2. Common nouns governed by some prepositions, 
such as per, for, senza, without, in, in, con, with, &c. 
have no article. 

B. 3. 5. Ma cost m* e convenuto fare, e per paura 
d? altrui, eper servare la Jama delta mia onestd ; but that 
behaviour was necessary for fear of other people, and 
also to preserve my own character. 

B. 3. 5. Sol tanto vi dico, che come imposto m! avete cost 
pensero di Jare senza fallo ; I only tell you that 1 shall, 
without fail, do what you have proposed. 

B. 2. 8. La Violante venne crescendo, ed in anni, ed 
in persona, ed in bellezza ; Violante grew up in stature 
and in beauty, as well as in years. 



SYNTAX OF THE ARTTCLE. 239 

B. 4. 3. E quivi con molta famiglia, con cani, e con 
uccelli, a guisa di baroni cominciarono a vivere ; and 
there they began to live like noblemen, keeping great 
numbers of servants, dogs, and birds, for their amuse- 
ment. 

[As for common nouns, accompanied with demonstra- 
tive and all the other tribes of pronouns, the learner 
will find a sufficient explanation of them in their proper 
places, ,] 



RULE II. 

Adjectives, infinitives, adverbs, prepositions, standing 
as substantives, are used with the definite article. 

Segn. Gli umili sono appunto coloro ai quali Iddio 
voleniieri da la sua grazia ; humble people are those on 
whom God bestows his favours. 

Buom. Ora dite voi, die se fra tutte le cose create, il 
parlare e quelche propriamente e particolarmente e per 
Tuomo, il parlare si pud dir con ragione cosa ottima ; 
now you say, that if of all things created for man, the 
faculty of speech is that which properly and particularly 
belongs to man, speaking may rightly be said to be an 
excellent property. 

B. 9. 7. E domandato da lei del perche, ordinatamente 
le racconto il sogno suo ; and being asked the reason, he 
related to her his whole dream. 

B. Filoc. O Florio, come e perche venisti tu qui? Ed 
egli mi rispondeva : del come non ti caglia; ma il perche 
ti diro ; Oh ! Florius, in what manner and for what 
reason did you come here ? And he answered, I 
will not tell you the manner, but you shall know the 
reason. 

G. Vill. Sicche ci e il pro e 'I contro ; so that there is 
something to say for and against. 

Umili, parlar, perche, come, pro, contro, standing as 
substantives, have their respective article. 



240 SYNTAX OP THE ARTICLE. 

1. Adjectives, accompanied or not with their sub- 
stantives, but used as epithets, take the definite 
article. 

B. 10. 6. Queste son niiejigliuole, delle quali Tuna ha 
name Ginevra la bella, e V ultra Isotta la bionda ; they 
are my daughters, one of whom is called Ginevra the 
handsome, and the other Isotta the fair. 

Davan. Lucio Silla sife* chiamare II Felice ; Lucius 
Sylla had himself called The Happy. 



RULE III. 

Papa, pope, imperadore, emperor, imperadrice, em- 
press, r£, king, regina, queen, signor e, mister, signora, 
mistress, signorina, miss, and all other names of dig- 
nities, such as principe, prince, conte, count, duca, duke, 
marchese, marquis, cavaliere, knight, are used with the 
definite article. 

B. 2. 3. Messer Cane delta Scala fu uno dei piii 
notabiii signori, che dallo imperadore Federico II. in 
qua si sapessein Italia; M. Cane della Scala was one of 
the greatest lords that had lived in Italy since the days 
of the emperor Frederic the Second. 

Band. II Re Carlo mart, essendo ancor il figiiuolo in 
Borgogna appresso al Duca Filippo ; King Charles died 
when his son was still in Burgundy, under the care of 
the Duke Philip. 

Gold. S ' iojbssi una signora di rango, esibirei al 
Signor Guglielrno la mia piccola segretaria ; if I were 
a lady of rank, I would make Signor Guglielrno my 
secretary* 

1. Papa, used as an adjective, may be used without 
an article. 

B. 1.1. Da Papa Bonifazio addomandato ; sent for 
by Pope Boniface. 



SYNTAX OF THE ARTICLE. 241 

2. If one of the above nouns follows the proper name, 
and is in apposition, it has no article. 

B. 10. 1. Prese per partito di volere essere appresso 
ad Alfonso, Re d'Ispagna ; he resolved to go into the 
service of Alphonso, King of Spain. 

B. 4. 1 . Tancredi, Principe di Salerno, fu signore 
assai umano ; Tancred, Prince of Salerno, was a most 
humane nobleman. 

B. 10. 2. II quale tomato in corte di Roma, lui ricon- 
cilia con Bonifazio, Papa, e folio frier e dello spedale ; 
who, having returned to the Court of Rome, recon- 
ciled him with Pope Boniface, and made him prior of a 
hospital, 



RULE IV. 

Names of the four quarters of the world, countries, 
and the cardinal points, whether the latter mean the car- 
dinal points of the horizon, or the countries called by 
those names, may or may not be used with the definite 
article, either in the nominative or accusative ; in the 
oblique cases, however, or when governed by a preposi- 
tion, the article is to be omitted. 

Buom. Tutta l'Europa e riputato stretto confine, ec. ; 
all Europe is considered to be a narrow limit, &c. 

Buom. Voi sapete die V Italia e stata piu volte soggio- 
cata da niolti harbari ; you know that Italy has been 
several times subdued by many barbarians. 

Buom. Le somme glorie d'ltalia ; the great glory of 
Italy. 

Buom. Talche oggi in Italia ella e qudl dovette essere 
gia la sagra in Egitto ; so that it (the Italian language) 
is in Italy now what the holy language must have for- 
merly been in Egypt. 

B. 10.3. Non solamente il levante, ma quasi tutto il 
ponente per Jama il conoscea ; not only the east, but 
also the greatest part of the west, resounded with his 
fame. 

M 



242 SYNTAX OF THE ARTICLE. 

B. 10. 3. II quale avendo ricetto vicino ad una strada 
per la quale quasi di necessita passava ciascuno, che di 
ponente verso levante andar voleva, ec. ; who, having a 
habitation adjoining to a road which led from east to 
west, through which every one passed. 



RULE V. 

Names of seas, rivers, mountains, and winds, take the 
definite article. 

Davan. Ma 1'Egeo, ma VAtlantico, non cerca di com- 
prendere, e sa bene che ei non pud ; but he does not try 
to comprehend the Egean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean, 
and he knows he cannot. 

Algar. Ella e tagliata dalP Adige, fiume^ \corne sai, 
amenissimo ; it is intersected by the Adige, a very plea- 
sant river, as you know. 

Algar. La divide V Arno il quale, come scupete, corre da 
oriente a ponente ; the river Arno separates it, which, as 
you know, flows from east to west. 

Gozzi. Ed egli dice : va al Caucaso gelato ; and he 
says : go to the frozen Caucasus. 

Gang. Ove resto un tempo inghiottita la citta d? Er- 
colano da una eruzione del Vesuvio ; where once the city 
of Herculaneum was overwhelmed by an eruption of 
Mount Vesuvius. 



RULE VI. 

Names of cities and islands have no article. 

Davan. Per che Firenze e citta dominante, e imitatrice 
di Roma ; because Florence is a powerful city, and the 
rival of Rome. 

B. 4. 3. Marseilles s\ come voi sapete e...antica e 
nobilissima citta ; Marseilles is, as you know, an ancient 
and a very noble city. 



SYNTAX OF THE ARTICLE. 243 

Erizzo. Rinieri, Re di Cipro; Rinieri, King of 
Cyprus. 

B. 4. 3. Tre giovani amano tre sorelle, e con loro si 
fuggono in Creti ; three young men love three sisters, 
and elope with them to Crete. 

B. 4. 4. Preso un legnetto die di Sardigna portato 
avevano ; having taken a small ship, which they had 
brought from Sardinia. 

Eriz. Guiscardo, Re di Cipro ; Guiscardo, King of 
Cyprus. 

1. There are, however, some nouns of cities that take 
an article, such as, il Cairo, Cairo ; la Mirandola, Mi- 
randola ; la Rocella, Rochelles ; and perhaps a few more 
which custom will teach. 

2. There are also some names of islands which take 
the article, such as il Giglio, Giglio, la Gorgona, Gorgona, 
VElba, Elbe, and also those islands which are n&med in 
the plural, such as le Molucche, the Molucca islands ; 
le Filippine, the Philippines. 

3. Some other islands, such as Sicilia, Sicily, IngJiiU 
terra, England, Irlanda, Ireland, Sardigna, Sardinia, 
may or may not take the article in the nominative case 
only, but not in the other cases. 



RULE VII. 

Dio, Iddio, God, whether absolute or accompanied with 
an adjective, which follows, has no article ; but if the 
adjective precedes the article is to be used. 

B. 8. 2. Dio ci mandi bene, chi e di qua? God help 
us, who is there? 

B. 2. 8. Iddio giasto riguardatore degli altrui meriti, 
altramente dispose ; God, the just reward er of people's 
merit, ordained it otherwise. 

m 2 



244 SYNTAX OF THE ARTICLE. 

Pass. & onnipotente Dio e misericordioso giudice nas- 
conde dal suo giudicio i nostrijhlli ; the Almighty God, 
and merciful judge, conceals our crimes from his judg- 
ment. 

1. Dio and iddio, speaking of the false deities of the 
heathens, make dei 9 dii, and iddii, in the plural, when 
they take the definite article, gli, degli, agli, daglL 

B. Filoc. Io gli dii scongiurando, ec. ; in conjuring 
the deities, I, &c. 

B. 10. 8. Se agli dei fosse piaciuto ; if the gods 
pleased. 

B. 10. 8. GF iddii, li quali dispo?igono e goveman 
noi, e le nostre cose; the gods, who dispose of, and 
govern, us and our affairs. 

1. Observe that Iddio may only be used in the nomi- 
native case. 



RULE VIII. 

Proper names, whether of men and women, deities, 
angels, or devils, and also months and days, have no 
article. 

Buom. E se vogliamo esaminare altri, in lui si puo 
facilmente scorgere e Vevidenza d'Ovidio, e la purita di 
Catullo, e la gravita di Sofocle ; and if we wish to exa- 
mine others, we can easily perceive in him (in Boccaccio) 
the perspicuity of Ovid, the purity of Catullus, the 
majesty of Sophocles. 

B. 4. 8. Filostrato, udita la fine del novellar di Pam- 
pinea, sovra se stesso alquanto stette, e poi disse ; when 
Philostratus heard the conclusion of Pampinea's story, 
he stood some time in suspense, and then said. 

Davan. Che fu veramente veduto Apollo saettare il 
velenoso Pitone ; for Apollo was really seen shooting the 
venomous serpent Python. 

Davan. Come si legge di Minerva che riparava, ec ; as 
we read of Minerva, who repaired, &c. 



SYNTAX OF THE ARTICLE. 245 

Davan. / Greci /' atiribuivano a quel loro iddii, e co- 
lore* die facevano quelle gran cose che sono scritte d'Ercole, 
e di Teseo, d 1 Ettore, e d' Achille ; the Grecians attributed 
it to their gods, and to them who performed those great 
deeds, which are recorded of Hercules, Theseus, Hector, 
and Achilles. 

Davan. Se i nemici suoi Thanjhtto grande, se il sesto 

di Gennajo/w t a-sce, e il primo e il secondo d' Agosto 

Jtvrono le marietta; if his enemies have made him great, 

if the sixth of January was for the chip-axe, and the 

first and second of August were for the hammers. 

Gozzi. Un modo assai nuovo, irC e avvenuto $ inten- 
dere per caso sabato di sera ; I happened by chance to 
hear of a new method on Saturday evening last. 

1. Some of these names, taken in a particular sense, 
or signifying a statue, a portrait, or preceding a genitive 
or relative, are used with the article. 

1' Apollo del Belvedere the Apollo of Belvedere 

la Venere de ' Medici the Venus of Medicis 

§. In a familiar style, the article is put before proper 
names of men and women ; as — 

E chiamato il Gerbino, dissono ; and having called 
Gerbino, they said. 

B. 4. 3. // quale molto amata aveva la Ninetta ; who 
had an ardent affection for Ninetta. 

This last observation, however, is not much in use 
at present. 



RULE IX. 

Surnames or family names have no article when pre- 
ceded by the proper name. 

B. 4. 9. Messer Guglielmo Rossiglione da a rnangiare 
alia moglie sua il cuore di Messer Guglielmo Guar- 



246 SYNTAX OF ?HE AETlCLfi. 

dastagno ; M. Guglielmo Rossiglione makes his wife eat 
the heart of M. Guglielmo Guardastagno. 

1. But when family names are used as proper names 
to specify a person of such a family, and also, when we 
speak of family names of celebrated men, the article is 
to be used. 

B. 4. 9. II Guardastagno rispose che senzafallo il d\ 
seguente andrebbe a cenar con luL II Rossiglione udendo 
questo, penso il tempo esser venuto di poterlo uccidere ; 
Guardastagno answered, that he would sup with him 
the following night. Rossiglione hearing this, thought 
the time of murdering him was near at hand. 

Buom. L ' esquisitezza poi del Petrarca, altro nume 
della nostra volgar poesia; the exquisite elegance of 
Petrarch, another god of our Italian poetry. 

Buom. Ma che diremo della* sopraumana eloquenza 
del Boccaccio ? But what shall we say of the super- 
natural eloquence of Boccaccio ? 

In the first examples, Rossiglione and Guardastagno 
have no article, because preceded by proper names. In 
the second examples, the two surnames take the article 
specifying the family names ; and Petrarca and Boccaccio 
being names of celebrated men, also take their respec- 
tive article. It seems, however, that the surnames of 
celebrated men of Latin and Greek compositions, such 
as Ovid Naso, Virgil Maro, Horace Flaccus, never take 
an article, though used instead of the first ; thus we 
say, Naso?ie, Marone, &c. but it is not common. 



RULE X. 



A noun expressive of the title of a work, or any other 
title, dignity, or nation, or explaining the quality of a 
foregoing name, has no article. 

Macch. Discorso di Luigi Guicciardini ai magistrati ; 
a discourse of Luigi Guicciardini to the magistrates. 



SYNTAX 0$ THE ARTICLE. 24? 

Segn. E colla guida cP Ulamane, Persiano ; and guided 
by Ulamane, a Persian. 

Bemb. Gismondo, fratello di Federico, Imperatore de' 
Romani ; Gismond, a brother to Frederic, Emperor of 
the Romans. 

Segn. Avendo abbandonata Tauris, citta reale ; he 
having left Tauris, a royal city. 

Sann. In quel giorno si dovea celebrare la festa di 
Pales, dea de' pastori; on that day they were to celebrate 
the feast of Pales, the goddess of shepherds. 



RULE XL 

Casa, house or home, corte, court, chiesa*, church, 
citta, city, nozze, wedding, campagna or contado, country, 
&c. taken in an undetermined sense, and preceded by a 
verb of motion, have no article. 

B. 10. 10. Giunti a casa del padre della Junciulla ; 
they having arrived at the house of the young lady's 
father. 

Seneca Pist. Ne gia aresti amico si caro, per cui 
mallevadore tu andassi a corte ; you would not have 
so dear a friend to bail, for whom you would go into 
court. 

B. 8. 5. Benche i cittadini non abbiano afar cosa del 
mondo a palagio. pur talvolta vi vanno ; people some- 
times go to those courts, though they have no business 
in them. 

B. 7. 5. Che a nozze o a chiesa andar potesse ; in order 
that she might go to a wedding, or to church. 

G. Villi Gli sbanditi uscirono quasi tutti di citta e di 
contado ; almost all the outlaws went out of the city and 
left the country. 



248 SYNTAX OF THE ARTICLE. 



RULE XII. 

Santo, santa, saint, frate, friar, suora nun, accom- 
panied with a proper name, have no article. 

Den. Con una holla istitui Tordine di San Mau- 
rizio; he instituted the order of Saint Maurice with a 
bull. 

B. 5. 10. Pareva pur Santa Veridiana die da bee- 
care alle serpi ; she seemed St. Veridiana feeding the 
serpents. 

B. 4. 2. Frate Alberto da a vedere ad uha donna die 
Tagnolo Gabriello, ec. ; Friar Alberto gives a woman to 
understand that the angel Gabriel, &c. 

Messere, rnadama, madonna, have often been used by 
Boccaccio instead of signore and signora, without the 
article, but at present they are obsolete. 



RULE XIII. 

When a genitive is governed by a substantive, of 
which it expresses the material, it is to be remarked, 
that if the genitive is taken in an indeterminate sense, 
di is used ; and if it particularizes such and such a 
material or subject, the genitive of the definite article is 
used. 

G. Vill. Tutte le nionete d' argento sifondieno e porta- 
vansi oltre mare ; all silver coins -were melted, and trans- 
ported beyond the seas. 

B. 7. 3. Fattafare la immagine di cera, la mandd ad 
appiccare dinanzi allajigura di 8 ant Ambrogio ; he set 
about making the waxen image, and sent it to be hung 
up before the image of St. Ambrose. 

M. Vill. I Pisani si ritrassono addietro col castello di 
legname ; the Pisans retreated with the wooden tower. 



SYNTAX OF THE ARTICLE. 249 

Dante Conv. La statua di marmo, o di legno, o di 
metallo rimasa per memoria cPalcuno valente uomo ; the 
statue either of marble, wood, or metal, which is left 
behind as a remembrance of some valiant man. 

If in the above examples argento, cera, legname, &c. 
had been made to express any particular kind of silver, 
wax, &c. they would have been used with the definite 
article ; thus, delV argento, delta cera, &c. 

2. When the genitive marks the destination of the 
substantive which governs it, it is used with the genitive 
case of the definite article. 

B. 9. 5. Vattene nella casa della paglia ; go into the 
barn. 

B. 7. 3. Mandato il cainpagno suo nelpalco de' colombi ; 
he sent his companion into the pigeon-house. 

G. Vill. E quasi tutte le case della marina, ov* erano i 
magazzini del vino Greco e delle nocciuole per lo accre- 
scimento del mare tutte allago ; and almost all the houses 
near the sea, in which were warehouses filled with Greek 
wine and nuts, were overwhelmed by an inundation of 
the sea. 



RULE XIV. " ' 

Of the three cases of the indefinite article di, a, da, 
di and a may sometimes be left out by ellipsis, and that 
happens, 

When a genitive, governed by the noun casa, is the 
name of the master of the house. 

B. 3. 2. In casa Messer Guasparrino ; at Mr. Guas- 
parrino's house. 

1. But if casa has an article, di is to be used before 
the substantive. 

B. 5. 4. Usava molto nella casa di Messer Lizio ; he 
visited often at Mr. Lizio's. 

2. When the word Dio, God, is governed by merce 
or grazia, thanks, di is left out, and Dio is put between 

m 3 



250 SYNTAX OF THE ARTICLE. 

the article and the substantive by which it is governed ; 
but if this transposition does not take place di is to be 
used. 

B. 3. 9. La Dio rnerce e la vostra io ho cid, che io 
desiderava ; thank God and you, I now have what I 
wished for. 

B. 3 3. La merce di Dio e del marito mio, io ho tante 
horse e tante cintole cli io ve Vqffogherei dentro ; thank 
God and my husband* I have purses and sashes enough. 

Lui, lei, loro, colui, colei, color o, costui, costei, 
costoro, cui, and altrui, may be used without di and a, 
for examples of which we refer the student to their pro- 
per places. 



RULE XV. 

OF THE REPETITION OF ARTICLES. 

When in a sentence there are several nouns, if the 
article is to be put before the first, it must also be put 
before the others, and if it is omitted before the first, it 
is well to omit it before the other nouns. 

Davan. Onde Lucio Silla, che vinse la virtu, e i 
Trionfi, e i sette consolati di C. Mario, si fe 1 chiamare 
il Felice ; therefore, L. Sylla, who surpassed C. Marius 
in courage, and in the number of his triumphs and con- 
sulships, had himself called The Happy. 

B. 1. 1. Che uomo e costui? il quale ne vecchiezza, ne 
infermita,, ne paura di morte dalla sua malvagita V hanno 
potuto rimuovere ; what a man is this ! whom neither 
age, sickness., nor the fear of death, could deter from his 
wicked course. 

1. When in a sentence di, a, da, are required before 
several nouns, they are sometimes omitted before some 
of them, especially when the conjunction e intervenes. 



SYNTAX OF ADJECTIVES. 251 

B. 3. 8. Fu una gentil donna di bellezze ornata e 
di costumi, d 1 altezza danimo e sottili avvedimenti, quanta 
alcurf altra dalla natura dotata ; there was a lady, whose 
beauty, good behaviour, loftiness of mind, and fine pene- 
tration, made her equal to any of her sex. 

Davan. / Greci V attribuirono a quel loro Iddii, e a 
coloro, chefacevano quelle gran cose ; the Grecians attri- 
buted it to their gods, and to those who performed 
those great exploits. 

B. 5. 1. DcC compagni di Lisimaco e Cimone fediti, e 
ributtati indietrofurono ; they were wounded and driven 
back by the companions of Lysimachus and Cymon. 

These are the rules most commonly laid down by 
grammarians, respecting the repetition of articles ; and 
though good authors have sometimes violated them, yet 
we advise the student to adhere to them on all occasions^ 
until, by a nice discernment in reading good authors, 
and an accurate attention to the best usage, he can direct 
himself in this respect. 



RULE XVI. 

SYNTAX OF ADJECTIVES. 

Adjectives are to agree with their substantives in 
gender and number, whether they are next to their 
substantives, or separated from them by a verb, or any 
other word or phrase. 

Examples of the Adjective, next to Us Substantive. 

Gozz. Fu una volta un uomo di cuore benefico ; there 
was once a kind-hearted gentleman. 

Gozz. Ebbe questo cortigiano la mala fortuna di caderc 
in disgrazia del suo signore; this courtier was so unfortu- 
nate as to lose the favour of his master. 

Gozz. Vastrologo del Califfo, dopo varie osservazioni, 
disse ; the astrologer of the Caliph, after various observa- 
tions, said. 



252 SYNTAX OF ADJECTIVES. 

Examples of the Adjective, separated from its 
Substantive. 

Gang. E s tanto tempo che io scrivo, che la mia mano 
dovrebbe esserci avvezza ; I have been writing so long* 
that my hand ought to be accustomed to it. 

B. 3. 1. In queste nostre contrade fu, ed e ancora un 
monistero di donne assai famoso di santita ; in our neigh- 
bourhood there was, and there is still, a nunnery very 
much renowned for the sanctity of its inmates. 

B. 3. 1. Alle quali Z'altre tre per diversi accidenti 
divenner compagne in varj iempi ; of whom the other 
three (nuns), by divers accidents, became companions at 
different times. 

B. 3. 2. Ed essendo . . . . Le cose de^ Longobardi pros- 
pere ; the affairs of the Longobards being in a pros- 
perous way. 

B. 3.3. Niuna rea femina^ mai del fuoco degna 
come sari io; I should judge no woman more deserving 
of death than myself. 

B. 10. 8. Mi converra Jar due cose molto a" miei 
costumi contrarie ; I shall be obliged to do two things 
contrary to my inclinations. 

Exceptions. 

An adjective accompanied with a substantive feminine 
applicable to man, is to be of the masculine gender. 

F. Gior. La persona quando e tribolato, si dice e 
pensa che Iddio T abbia in odio ; when a person is 
afflicted, people generally say and believe that God 
hates him. 

B. 7. 4. Gli prieghi non giovavano alcuna cosa, perche 
quella bestia (Tofano), era piu disposto a volere, ec. ; 
entreaties were of no use, for that stupid ass was 
disposed to, Sec. 

But when the above substantives refer to both men 
and women, the adjective is to be feminine. 



SYNTAX OF ADJECTIVES, 253 

Gang. Le persone veramente pie, sono savie ; people 
really pious are wise. 

An adjective, accompanied with ogni cosa, a word of 
the feminine gender, has been put either in the feminine 
or the masculine ; but we think it is better to be put in 
the feminine gender, as ogni cosa is feminine. 

B. 2. 1. Veggendo ogni cosa disorrevole, e cost dis- 
parate, comincio a rider e ; on seeing every thing in confu- 
sion, lie began to laugh. 

B. 2. 3. In verita io non so ; iu vedi, che ogni cosa e 
pieno ; indeed I do not know : you see that every room 
in the house is full. 

B. 3. 6. E ogni cosa di Jtori quali nella stagione si 
potevano avere, piena la brigata trovo; the company 
found every thing filled with flowers, such as may be 
had in that season. 

Mezzo, signifying the half of a whole, and preceding its 
substantive, has no plural and is declinable ; but if fol- 
lowing, it is indeclinable. 

B. 5. 8. Esso bene un mezzo miglio per la pigneta 
entrato ; he advanced more than half a mile into a grove 
of fir trees. 

B.3. 7. Vientene in sulla mezza notte ; come about 
midnight. 

Barch. Togli una libra e mezzo di castrone ; buy a 
pound and a half of mutton. 

Redi. La terza tre ore e mezzo avanti cena ; the third 
(a medicine), three hours and a half before supper. 

Mezzo, signifying almost, is an adverb, and conse- 
quently indeclinable. 

B. 7. 5. Alia donna pareva mezzo avere mteso ; the 
woman thought she had almost heard. 

Mezzo, as an adverb, is often found in the plural, but 
the student is not to imitate that practice. 



254 



SYNTAX OF ADJECTIVES. 



RULE XVII. 



Adjectives are to agree with personal, conjunctive, and 
relative pronouns, in gender and number, whether sepa- 
rated from them by a verb or not. 

B. 10. 9- Io son vivo la Dio nxerce, e qui aVoltre mar 
ritornato ; I am alive, thank God, and come back hither 
from beyond the sea. Vivo, an adjective masculine, 
agrees with io, a pronoun of the masculine gender. 

B. 10. 9. Considerando che voi side dalle vostre donne 
lontani ; considering that you (gentlemen) are far from 
your wives. Lontani is an adjective masculine plural, 
because voi, a personal pronoun, with which it is made 
to agree, is of the masculine gender. 

B. 10. 6. Queste parole amaramente punsero F animo 
del re, e tanto piil Fqffissero quanta piil vere le conoscea ; 
these words touched the king to the quick : and so much 
the more, as he knew them to be true. Vere is an adjec- 
tive feminine plural., because le, with which it is made to 
agree, is a relative pronoun of the feminine gender and 
plural number. 

B. 5. 3. Li quali, qiiando la videro sola, dissero ; who, 
when they saw her alone, said. Sola is an adjective 
feminine, because la, with which it is made to agree, is a 
relative pronoun of the feminine gender. 

B. 9. 2. Ed esso lei veggendo bellissima di lei s 1 ac- 
cese ; and he seeing she was very handsome, fell in love 
with her. Bcllisshna is an adjective superlative femi- 
nine, because lei, with which it is made to agree, is a 
personal pronoun of the feminine gender. 

Gang. Egli viene ad inure la sua possanza colla nos- 
tra debolezza, per render-ci forti ed invincibili ; he comes 
to unite his strength with our weakness, to make us 
strong and invincible. Forti and invincibili are adjec- 
tives masculine plural, because ci, with which they are 
made to agree, is a conjunctive pronoun of the masculine 
gender and plural number. 



SYNTAX OF ADJECTIVES. 255 

B. 10. 4. Madonna, omai da ogni promessa Jattami, 
io vi assolvo, e libera vi lascio di Nicoluccio ; Madam, I 
free you from all your promises to me, and I leave you 
at the disposal of Nicoluccio. Libera is an adjective 
feminine, because vi, with which it is made to agree, is a 
conjunctive pronoun of the feminine gender. 

B. 10. 9. Ed informato un de suoi famigli di cid che 
far volea, alia sua donna, che savissima era, nel niando ; 
and having informed one of his servants of what he was 
going to do, he sent him to his wife, who was a very wise 
woman. Savissima is an adjective superlative feminine, 
because che, with which it is made to agree, is a relative 
pronoun of the feminine gender. 

B. 9. 1. Alessandro, levatosi prestamente, con tutto 
che i panni del morto avesse indosso, li quali erano molto 
lunghi, pure ando via altresi ; Alexander, getting up 
quickly, although he was dressed in the clothes of the 
deceased, which were very long, went away too. Lunghi 
is an adjective masculine plural, because li quali, with 
which it is made to agree, is a relative pronoun of the 
masculine gender and plural number. 



RULE XVIII. 

An adjective, belonging to two or more substantives 
masculine singular, or one singular and another plural, 
or one masculine and another feminine, and separated 
from the said substantive by a verb, either expressed or 
understood, is to be put in the plural, and to agree with 
the masculine. 

B. 10. 7. II padre di lei, e la madre (essendo is un- 
derstood) dolorosi di questo accidente, in cid che si 
poteva V atavano ; her parents, grieved at that accident, 
did all in their power to relieve her. Dolorosi is an ad- 
jective masculine plural, which belongs to padre and 
madre, the former masculine, and the latter feminine, 
and both in the singular number. 



256 SYNTAX OF ADJECTIVES. 

B. 10. 8. Le mie case ed i luoghi pubblichi di Roma 
son pieni db antidie immagini de 1 miei maggiori; my 
houses and the public places of Rome, are tiUed with 
ancient statues of my ancestors. Pieni is an adjective 
masculine plural, belonging to case a substantive femi- 
nine plural, and luoghi a substantive masculine, also 
plural. 

Metas. Let. Dovevate dirmi die la corte tutta, 

die i sovrani sono sommamente contenti ; you ought to 
have told me that the whole court and the sovereigns 
are well satisfied. Contenti is an adjective masculine 
plural, belonging to corte a substantive feminine singular, 
and sovrani a substantive masculine plural. 

But if the said substantives are feminine, the adjective 
is to be feminine, and put also in the plural number. 

Metas. Let. So die viille bellezze del noto componimento, 
e mille altre adorabili qualitd delta reale compositrice, 
S07io piu atte ad irritare ; I know that a thousand beau- 
ties of that known composition, and as many adorable 
qualities of the royal authoress, are more apt to irri- 
tate. Atte is an adjective feminine plural, belonging to 
bellezze and qualita, both feminine plural. 



RULE XIX. 

An adjective, accompanied with two or more substan- 
tives either of the same or different gender, or number, 
without a verb intervening, is to agree with the substan- 
tive next to it. 

Guic. E\ cosa manifestissima, die oggi non viene solo 
in consulta, se £ ha a rifiutare V occasione d' acquistare 
onor'u e gloria nuova ; it is manifest, that no one comes 
to a consultation, if he is to refuse an opportunity of 
gaining new honours and glory. Nuova, an adjective 
feminine singular, is made to agree with gloria, its im- 
mediate substantive feminine plural, and not with onori, 
masculine plural. 



SYNTAX OF ADJECTIVES, 257 

B. 3. 7. E quale col giacchio il pescatore d 1 occupare 
nel Jiume molti pesci ad un> tratio, cosi costoro collejim- 
brie amplissime avvolgendosi molte pinzochere, molte 
vedove, molte altre sciocche femine, ed uomini (F avvi- 
lupparvi sotto s^ ingegnano ; and as fishermen strive to 
take as many fishes as possible with one cast of their 
nets, so do these, with their large folds, envelope devout 
maidens, widows, and other simple people. Sciocche, 
an adjective feminine plural, is made to agree with 
Jemine its immediate substantive feminine plural, and 
not with uomini. 

B. 10. 8. Ma per cid die 7 parlar della segreta pro- 
videnza ed intenzion degV Iddiipare a molti duro e grave 
a comprendere ; however, as discoursing upon the secrets 
of the gods, is too difficult and intricate for most people 
to comprehend. Segreta is an adjective feminine sin- 
gular, which is made to agree with provvidenza its imme- 
diate substantive feminine singular, and not with both 
substantives. 

B. 4. 8. E molti prieghi, e promesse grandissime mes- 
colate, niuna cosa ottenne ; and though he used many 
entreaties and fair promises to persuade her, yet it w T as 
all in vain. Grandissime, an adjective feminine plural, 
is made to agree with promesse, its immediate substan- 
tive feminine plural, and not with prieghi, a substantive 
masculine. 

A. C. Let. JO oceano sifara dalla destra un omaccione 
con barba e crini bagnati ; as for the ocean, it is to be re- 
presented as a large overgrown old man with a dripping 
beard and hair. Bagnati is an adjective masculine plu- 
ral, which is made to agree with mni a substantive 
masculine plural. 

B. 4. 1. Ed oltre a cid niuno atto intendo di rendermi 
benivola la tua mansuetudine, e 7 tuo amore ; besides, I 
do not intend to take advantage of your love and ten- 
derness towards me. Benivola is an adjective feminine 
singular, which is made to agree with mansuetudine, a 
substantive feminine singular, and not with amore, a mas- 
culine substantive, 



&88 SYS! TAX OF ADJECTIVES. 

RULE XX. 

POSITION OF ADJECTIVES* 

Adjectives may in general be placed either before or 
after the substantives which they are to qualify. Ex. 

B. 10. 9. DV da mia parte alia nuova sposa, che nelle 
mie contrade s* u$a 9 quando alcun forestiere inangia al 
convito della sposa nuova, ec. ; tell the bride from me, 
that it is a custom in my country, when any foreigner is 
at such an entertainment as this, &c. 

B. 10. 8. Questo e dunque il gran male, il gran pec- 
cato, il gran fat to adoperato da Gisippo ? is this then the 
mighty crime that Gisippus has committed ? 

B. 10. 9. Contntto che egli avesse la barba grande; 
although he had a very long beard. 

B. 10. 2. Ma T or a del mangiar venuta, V abate e tutti 
gli altri ordinatamente, e di buone vivande, e di vini 
buoni serviti furono ; when the time of dinner was 
come, the abbot and all the others sat down, and were 
nobly entertained. 

B. 10. 2. Mend aUora Ghino V abate nella sala, dove 
erano i moi arnesi e la famiglia tutta ; Ghino then led 
the abbot into a room, where he found his effects and all 
his servants. 

B. 10. 2. Avendo Ghino in una sola tutti li suoi arnesi 
fatti venire ; Ghino having had all the effects brought 
into a room. 

In the above examples the adjectives nuovo, grande, 
buono, and tutto, as it is clearly seen, are sometimes put 
before, and sometimes after their substantives, without 
any apparent reason, but that, perhaps, of giving an 
elegant turn to a phrase or making it sound better to the 
ear ; for Boccaccio might as well have placed all those 
adjectives, either always before their substantives or 
always after, without offending the rules of grammar ; 
but then the composition would have been indifferent, 



SYNTAX OF ADJECTIVES. 259 

and destitute of that energy and elegance which are so 
much admired in Italian compositions. There are, how- 
ever, many adjectives which, on account of their double 
meaning, cannot be placed at pleasure ; but, according 
to their respective significations, they have a place as- 
signed to them. As, for example, grande, signifying 
tail, is placed after its substantive thus, egli e un uomo 
grande, he is a tall man : when it signifies great or noble, 
it is put before it, thus, egli e un grand? uomo, he is a 
great man. And again: — certo, signifying certain, is 
always placed before its substantive, thus, v era ivi un 
certo signore, there was there a certain gentleman : when 
it signifies sure, it is placed after it, thus, egli e cosa certa, 
it is a sure thing. For the position of these adjectives, 
as well as of others, no exact rules can be set down ; and 
nothing but good taste, a refined ear, a nice discernment 
in reading good authors, and above all the instructions of 
good masters, can satisfy the student on this subject. 

Yet it is not our intention to leave the learner quite in 
the dark, and to his own guidance alone, if he cannot 
have the instruction of a master ; and although we cannot 
give all the rules required, so as to leave no doubt in 
placing the adjectives, we will set down those which are 
sanctioned by custom, as used in the familiar style and 
regular construction ; and these, if they do not remove 
all the difficulties, will at least lead into no errors. 



RULE XXI. 

Adjectives derived from participles, those of colour, 
form, taste, those expressive of a nation, those that 
govern a case, or are connected with any other part of 
speech, are to be placed after the substantive which they 
qualify. Ex. 

5. Ann. C. Let. La volta pot, in uno sfondato di 
forma ovale; the ceiling (divided) into a cavity of an 
oval form. Ovale, an adjective expressive of form, is 
placed after its substantive^rwa. 



260 SXNTAX OF ADJECTIVES. 

1. Ann. C. Let. Sia posta a seder e in una sedia in- 
dorata ; she is to be seated on a gilt chair. 

2. Ann. C. Let. Nelle mani le si ponga una lampada 
accesa ; she is to hold a lighted lamp. 

3. Indorata, an adjective, feminine of indorato, a par- 
ticiple from indorare, to gild, and accesa, feminine of 
acceso, a participle from accendere, to light, are placed 
after their substantives, sedia and lampada. 

4. Ann. C. Let. Tenga le mani alte, e dalV una un 
bambino bianco che dorma, per significare il sonno, dalV 
altra wi altro nero che paja dormire, sigmfichi la morte ; 
she is to hold her hands up, and in one hand a white 
child asleep, to represent sleep, and in the other a black 
one, seemingly asleep, to represent death. Bianco and 
Tiero being adjectives of colour, are put after their sub- 
stantive, bambino. 

6. B. 10. 9. L 1 abate, con tutto che egli in abito Ara- 
he^co fosse, dopo alquanto il raffiguro ; though he was 
dressed after the Arabian fashion, the abbot soon recol- 
lected him. 

B. 5. 2. La giovane udendo la favella Latina ; the 
young woman, on hearing her speak Latin. Arabesco 
and Latina being adjectives expressive of nations, are 
placed after their substantives abito audfovella. 

Ann. C. Let. E con alcune tazze in memo piene di 
vino ; and holding some cups filled with wine. 

Ann. C. Let. Una giovane che dorma colla testa ap- 
poggiata sopra al braccio sinistro ? a young woman 
sleeping, and reclining her head on her left arm. 

Ann. C. Let. La vesta, chi vuol che sia lunga^Tio d 
piedi> chi corta fino alle ginocchia ; as for her dress, 
some will have it to reach to her feet, and others to 
her knees. 

Piene an adjective governing di, a genitive, appoggiata, 
governing sopra, lunga and corta, governing the pre- 
position fino, are placed after their respective substan- 
tives tazze, testa, and vesta. 

To adjectives, which are to be put after their substan- 
tives, we may add those that are expressive of physical 



SYNTAX OF ADJECTIVES. 261 

qualities, as cieco, blind; zoppo, lame; gi*asso, fat; 
magro, thin ; those that particularize the weather, as 
nebbioso, foggy ; piovoso, rainy ; oscuro, dark, &c. ; 
those that are expressive of the feelings, as, caldo, warm ; 
freddo, cold, &c. ; of infirmities, as, etico, consumptive ; 
accatarrato, having a cold ; idropico, dropsical, &c. 

All the above adjectives are often found before their 
substantives ; but that the student is not to imitate, until 
he has acquired sufficient knowledge of the language to 
choose the fittest position for them, to combine harmony 
and elegance. 



RULE XXII. 

When two or more adjectives are to qualify one sub- 
stantive, they may all either precede or follow the sub- 
stantive. Ex. 

Boca 3. 5. Ed al nostra amove daremo piacevole, ed 
intero compimento ; and we shall agreeably pass together 
all the time we can. Piacevole and intero, adjectives, 
are both placed before compimento, a substantive. 

B. 4. 1. Avendo seco Tancredi varie e diverse novita 
pensate ; Tancred having revolved in his mind different 
thoughts. Varie and diverse, adjectives, are both placed 
before novita, the substantive which they are to qualify. 

B. 4. % II quale ampia materia mi presta . . . a dimos- 
trare, quanta e quale sia la ipocresia de^ religiosi, li quali 
cd* panni larghi e lunghi, e cd* visi artificialmente pallidi , 
e colle voci umili e mansuete net domandar Valtrui ; this 
(proverb) affords ample matter ... to shew how great is 
the hypocrisy of some of the religious, who have their 
garments long and large ; their faces made pale artifici- 
ally ; their language meek and humble, for the sole 
purpose of getting men's property from them. Larghi 
and lunghi, umili, and mansuete, adjectives, are placed 
after their respective substantives, panni and voci. 



262 SYNTAX OF ADJECTIVES. 

Two adjectives, qualifying a substantive, may be 
separated by putting one of them before, and the other 
after the substantive, which adds more grace and elegance 
to the phrase in question. 

B. 5. I. Ormisda, statoin lungo trattato di dover tor re 
per moglie una nobile giovane e bella . . . chiamata Cas- 
sandra ; Ormisda, who had been long talked of as about 
to marry a noble and beautiful young lady called Cas- 
sandra. 

B. 4. 10. Maestro Mazzeo . . . avendo presa per moglie 
una hella e gentil giovane . . .di nobili vestimenti e ricchi 
. . . e d? altre gioje teneva Jbrnita ; Master Mazzeo . . . 
having married a young and beautiful woman ... gratified 
her in rich and elegant clothes and jewels. 

Though this transposition belongs to the figurative 
syntax, which will be spoken of hereafter, we have 
thought proper to give the above examples on this as well 
as on other subjects scattered throughout this book, when 
the opportunity presents itself, to avoid prolixity in 
treating of that part of the grammar. 

Adjectives are sometimes employed as adverbs, and 
this adds more grace and elegance to the phrases in 
question. The following are a few examples. 

B. 10. 8. E per cid . . . caccia la malinconia . . . e lieto 
aspetta i meriti del tuo molto piil degno amore che il 
mio non era; and therefore drive melancholy away, 
and joyfully prepare yourself to receive the gratifications 
of your love, which is more fervent than mine. Lieto 
for lietamente. 

Sann. Arc. E mentre cosi dubitosi andavamo . . . Opico 
...disse; and while we thus doubtfully went on, Opico 
said. Dubitosi for dubitosamente. 

B. 4. 9- E come in quella parte il vide giunto^ dove 
voleva; fellone, con una lancia sopra mano gli us&i 
addosso gridando ; and when he saw him in a fit place 
for his purpose, he furiously ran with his lance at him, 
saying. Fellone for Jellonescamente. 



SYNTAX OF COMPARATIVES. 263 



Syntax of Comparatives. 

The comparatives of equality, as we said, page 78, 
are formed by means of the words cost, come, tanto, 
quanto, &c. and the examples set down on that subject, 
are quite sufficient for the information of the student i 
what now remains to be said about that sort of compara- 
tives, is their government, which we will endeavour to 
explain as clearly as possible. 



RULE XXIII. 

OF THE GOVERNMENT OF COMPARATIVES OF EQUALITY. 

Comparatives of equality, whether they are made with 
adjectives or adverbs, require the nouns following come 
or quanto, to be put in the accusative. 

Before we proceed with the examples, it is proper to 
observe, that as this rule cannot be distinguished in 
nouns, because their accusative is the same as their 
nominative, we have therefore chosen the following 
examples, with some of the personal pronouns, the 
accusative of which is different from their nominative. 

B. Fil. Sicche quanto me puote essere alcun dolente ; 
ma piii no ; so that any body may be as miserable as I 
am, but nobody more so. 

B. 5. 3. Pietro, die piii al viso di lei andava guar- 
dando, che al cammino, non essendosi tosto come lei de* 
fanti che venieno avveduto ; Pietro, whose eyes were more 
intent upon his mistress, than on the road, did not so 
quickly see the soldiers coming as she did. 

Me is the accusative of io, and lei accusative of etta. 

If the verb (the subject of which is the noun governed 
by quanto or come)^ is to be expressed in Italian, the said 
noun must be put in the nominative case ; and the said 



264 SYNTAX OF COMPARATIVES. 

verb, if its action leaves no doubt of its being, is to be 
put in the indicative. 

Guic. Non aveva giammai . . . Italia . . . provato stuto 
tanfo desiderabile quanto era quello ; Italy had never 
experienced so desirable a state as that was. 

B. 10. 7. Alia reina piacque molto la risposta della 
giovane, e parvele cos^ savia, come il re Tavea detto; 
the queen was much pleased with the young woman's 
reply, thinking her as prudent as the king had reported 
her to be. 

B. 9. 1. Siccome quella che ha di ltd, cost morto come 
egli e, paura; she is afraid of him though he is dead. 

Quello, il re, and egli, are nominatives, because the 
words era, e, avea, derived from essere, to be, and avere, 
to have, are expressed, not understood ; and these very 
words, era, e, and avea, are put in the indicative, because 
no doubt is left of their being, or rather to say, because 
the actions are certain. 

But if the action of the verb is indeterminate or leaves 
any doubt behind, the said verb is to be put in the 
subjunctive, 

B. 8. 6. Napoli, cittd antichissima, e Jbrse cost dileU 
tevole come ne sia alcuna altra in Italia ; Naples, a very 
ancient city, and perhaps as pleasant as any other in 
Italy. 

B. 4. 1. Costeiju dal padre tanto teneramente arnata, 
quanto alcuna altra Jigliuola da padre fosse giammai ; 
no child could be more dear to a parent than this young 
woman was. 

B. 4. 6. Che a me pareva . . . aver presa una ca- 
Vriuola tanto bella, e tanto piacevole* quanto alcuna 
altra se ne vedesse giammai ; I thought I had taken 
a young hind as beautiful and as affectionate as could 
ever be imagined. 

Sia and fosse, derived from the verb essere, to be, 
and vedesse, from vedere, to see, are in the subjunctive, 
because the action of each verb is indeterminate. 



SYNTAX OF COMPARATIVES. 265 

EEMARKS ON tailt0 9 WITH THE CORRESPONDENCE OF 

guanto. 

1. These two words not only are adverbs for forming 
the comparatives of equality, as we have said above, 
but they are also adjectives, and as such they are to 
agree with their substantive, either expressed or under- 
stood, in gender and number. Ex. 

B. 4. 6. Per la qual cosa molti a ciascun sogno tanta 
fede prestano, quanta ne presteriano a quelle cose, le 
quali vegghiando vedessero ; for which reason, we see 
many people paying the same regard to a dream as they 
would do to any thing which they saw whilst they were 
really awake. Tanta and quanta agree with fede, a 
substantive of the feminine gender, in the second instance 
fede being understood. 

Gold. II danaro si semina come la biada, e alV uomo 
di giudizio un bajocco frutta tanti bajocchi quanti gra- 
nelli in una spica produce un grano ; money is sown 
like wheat, and one penny produces to a wise man as 
many pence as grains are produced from one grain in 
an ear of corn. Tanti agrees with bajocchi, and quanti 
with granelli, both being substantives of the masculine 
gender. 

2. Tanto and its correspondent quanto, as adverbs, 
accompany the comparatives piu, meno, meglio, peggio, 
maggiore, minore, &c, and are expressed in English 
by the word the ; thus, the more, the less, the better, 
the worse. 

B. 8. 10. Manifesta cosa e, tanto piu Tarti piacere, 
quanto^z?) sottile artefice e per quelle artificiosatnente 
beffato ; it is certain that those stratagems are the more 
entertaining, the more cunning and artful is the person 
who is imposed upon by them. 

B. 6. 1. / leggiadri motti tanto stanno meglio alle 
donne che agU uomini, quanto piu alle donne che agli 
uomini il motto parlare si disdice ; elegant expressions 

N 



266 SYNTAX OF COMPARATIVES. 

are the embellishments of discourse, and the shorter they 
are the better, especially in women. 

In the above examples we have seen that tanto, either 
as an adjective or adverb, precedes quanlo ; it may, 
however, follow it, and then all the members of the sen- 
tence belonging to it must be transposed. 

B. 2. 6. Gravi cose e nojose sono i movimenti varj 
della fortuna, de* quali quante volte alcuna cosa siparla^ 
tante e un destare dette nostre rnenti ; very great and 
grievous are the changes of fortune, of which as often 
as we discourse, so often do they forcibly excite our 
attention. 

B. 2. 3. Quanto piu si parla de* fatti della fortuna^ 
tan to piu a chi vuole le sue cose ben riguardare, ne resta 
a poter dire ; the more we speak of the acts of fortune, 
so much the more remains to be spoken by those who 
consider them attentively. 

B. 3. 2. Come noi veggiamo assai sovente avvenire, 
quanto la speranza diventa minore, tan to maggior Varnor 
farsi ; as we often see, that love becomes very violent in 
a man who despairs of success. 

In these three examples, the words tanto, quanto, might 
have been transposed thus: — tante volte e un destare 
delle nostre mentis quante volte, &c. ; tanto piu resta a 
poter dire de' 'fatti della for tuna... quanto piu si parla di 
essi, &c. . . . tanto maggior Tarnor farsi*, quanto minore 
diventa la speranza. 

3. Tanto, (1) both as an adverb and an adjective, used 
in the sense of excess, or otherwise accompanied with the 
particles si, tale, &c. has the correspondence of che instead 
of quanto. 



(1) Tanto is sometimes without its correspondent, when the 
second member of the sentence is an infinitive. 

B.3. 1. Io non sono stato tanto f dice di piacervi; I was not so 
happy as to please you. 

The same may be 6aid of cost in the above sense. 



SYNTAX OF COMPABATIVES. 267 

B. 9. 2. E tantaju lafretta, che senza avvedersene... 

le si gitto in capo, e uscifwri ; and she was in so great 

a hurry, that she threw them over her head, without 

seeing what they were, and went forth. Tanta fu la 

fretta, that is, lafrettafu si grande. 

B. 9. 3. E darele tante busse, che io la romperei tutta; 
and I would give her such a flogging, that she would 
never forget it. E dar&le tante busse, that is, e le darei 
tin si gran numero di bastonate. 

B. 4. 8. E venendo poi crescendo Teta, Vusanza si con- 
vert\ in amore tanto e si jiero, che Girolamo non sentiva 
ben, se non tanto quanto costei vedeva ; and as he grew 
up, that acquaintance changed into love, which became 
so violent, that he was never easy, unless he was in her 
company. 

B. 8. 10. Egli e tanto e tale T amove, cJC io viporto . . . 
che . . . intendo di starmi qui per esservi sempre presso ; 
the love I bear you is so violent, that I intend to take 
my abode here, that I may always be near you. 



The comparatives of superiority and inferiority, formed 
by means of piil, and meno, as we said page 78, govern, 
in Italian, either the genitive or the particle che, both of 
which are expressed by than in English ; but as there are 
some cases in which one way is preferable to the other, 
we refer the reader to the following rules. 

RULE XXIV. 

The comparatives piit, rneno, meglio^ &c. whether 
accompanied with an adjective, or a verb, being followed 
by a noun or pronoun, govern the genitive. 

B. 1. 1. Ed avendo a fare con Borgognmi, non so cut 
io mi possa lasciare a riscuotere il mio da loro piu. con- 
venevole di te ; and as I have affairs to settle with some 
people of Burgundy, I do not know any one, whom I 
can employ, and who is fitter to manage them than 
yourself. 

n2 



268 SYNTAX 0E COMPARATIVES. 

B. 5. 2. Quindi partitosi corseggiando, comincio a 
costeggiare la Barberia rubando ciascuno che meno di lui 
poteva ; departing from thence, he cruized on the coast 
of Barbary, plundering any one of less force than his 
own. 

B. 10. 7- Ma si come voi meglio di me conoseete, 
niuno secondo debita elezione ei s* innamora ; but as you 
know better than I do, nobody falls in love with persons 
selected for him by duty. 

Di te, genitive of tu, is governed by piu, accompanied 
with convenevole, an adjective ; and di lui, and di rive, 
genitives of egli and io, are governed by meno and 
meglio, accompanied with the verbs poteva and conoseete. 

It is to be observed, that if the nouns or pronouns 
governed by the comparatives, as above, take an article, 
in Italian, instead of di — dello, del, della, &c. according 
to their gender and number, are to be used. 

Bembo. Questa opera cosi cercata da ognuno, e tanito 
piu corretta, e piu piena delle altre ; this work so much 
in demand, and still more correct and full than any 
other. Altre requires an article, therefore delle, instead 
of di, is to be used. 

Varchi. Quanto la vita e le azioni di re . . .sonopiil 
chiare e illustri della vita, e delle azioni delle persone pri- 
vate , . . tanto, &c. ; the more illustrious the lives and 
actions of kings are, when compared with those of other 
men, so much, &c. 



RULE XXV. 

A comparison being made between two or more ad- 
jectives, substantives, infinitives, participles, or in one 
word, between any similar parts of speech, the compara- 
tives piu, meno, meglio, &c. are to govern che instead of 
the genitive. Ex. 

B. 5. 9. Ma ella non meno onesta che bella, niente di 
quelle cose per lei Jatte, ne di colui si curava, che le 



SYNTAX OF COMPARATIVES. 209 

Jfaceva ; but she being not less respectable than she was 
fair, paid no regard either to what he did for her sake, 
or to himself. Onesta and bella are the two adjectives. 

■f . Passav. Potresti tu gia dire, Scipione, Vanimo mm 
vorrebhe piil tosto viitoria che pace; you might say, 
Scipio, that my intention is rather inclined to victory 
than to peace. Vittoria and pace are the two substantives. 

B. 4, Proem. E son di guegli ancora, che piu dispet- 
iosamente parlando che saviamente, kanno detto ; and 
there are some people, who speaking more maliciously 
than wisely, said. Dispettosamente and saviamente are 
the two adverbs. 

B. 10. 8. Di pari concordia deliberarono essere il 
migliore d'aver Tito per parente, che aver Gisippo pen* 
parente perduio, e Tito per nimico ; they thought it was 
better to admit Titus as a relation, than to lose the 
alliance of Gisippus, and procure the enmity of Titus. 
Aver repeated, are the two infinitives. 

B. 10. 8. / vostri rammarichi, piu da furia che da 
ragione incitati . . . dannano Gisippo ; your complaints, 
which arise more from rage than reason, condemn Gisip- 
pus. Incitati, a participle once expressed, and the 
other time understood, thus : piil incitati da furia, che 
incitati da rag.io?ie 9 are the participles in question. 

In like manner, we say : Cid si ottiene piu amando la 
viriil che carezzando il vizio ; that is obtained by loving 
virtue more than vice ; in which the comparison is made 
between two gerunds, amando and carezzando; and 
again, Mi place meglio il pro, che si dice di lui, cite il 
contra ; I like better that which is said in his favour, 
than what is said against him. 

To the word che, we add non, when a verb, which is 
neither infinitive, participle, nor gerund, is expressed ; 
Ex. 

B. 4, 8. Marsilia . . « e nobilissima citta, e gia fu di 
ricchi uomini e di gran mercatanti piu copiosa che oggi 
non si vede ; Marseilles is a very noble city, and was 
better provided formerly with rich citizens and wealthy 



270 SYNTAX OF COMPARATIVES 

merchants, than it is at present. Che non, than ; non is 
added to che, because the verb si vede is expressed. 

B. 10. 8. Ma vegnamo alia seco?ida ragione, nella 
quale con piil istanzia vi si convien dimostrare, lui piu 
essere stato savio che voi non siete ; but let us come to 
the second reason ; in which I will shew you by divers 
instances, that he has proved himself wiser than you are. 
Che non, than ; non is added to che because the verb 
siete is expressed. 

But if the verb is understood, che is used without the 
addition of non, 

B. 10. 8. E percid se Gisippo amo piil la vita mia che 
la vostra benignita ; if, therefore, Gisippus valued my 
life beyond your favour. That is, che non amo la vostra 
benignita. 

B. 3. 8. Io 9 misera me I gia sarto otto anni, f ho piu 
che la mia vita amato : alas ! I have loved you passion- 
ately for eight whole years ! That is : f ho amato piu 
che' non ho amato la mia vita. 

Instead of che non, we use di quel che, or di quelh 
che. Ex. 

Band. Veramente le sueforze sono assai piit maggiori 
di quel che noi possiamo immaginarci ; indeed, his 
strength is by far greater than we can imagine. 

Davila. Non erano meno ambigue le letter e di quello 
chefossero le parole ; her letters were no less ambiguous 
than her words. 

Di quel che, and di queUo che> are used in the place of 
che nxm. 

.• 

REMARKS ON piu. 

1. Piu is not only a comparative particle, but it is 
also used as an adjective, indeterminate pronoun, and 
adverb. Ex. 

B. 2. 7. i" marinari diedero le vele d venti e piu giorni 
felicemente navigarono ; the sailors hoisted their sails, 



SYNTAX OF SUPERLATIVES. 271 

and prosperously sailed many days. Piil, used as an 
adjective, for moltL 

B. 10. 4. La donna . . .fu in casa ricevuta, e quasi 
risuscitata, con ammirazione fu piu tempo guatata da* 
Bolognesi ; the lady was received by her family, and for 
a long time the people of Bologna beheld her with the 
same wonder, as if she had been raised from the dead. 
Piu, used as an adjective, for grande or lungo. 

B. 3. 8. Disse Ferondo, non d e egli piu persona che 
noi due ? Ferondo said : is nobody here then beside us 
two ? 

B. 10. 10. Madonnna, il mio Signore ni ha coman- 
dato, che io prenda questa vostra figliuola, e che io...e 
non disse piu; Madam, my lord ordered me to take your 
daughter, and . . . and said nothing else. 

Piiij in these two examples, is used as an indeterminate 
pronoun, for altro. 

B. 4. 1 . II tuo padre ti manda qiiesto per consolarti 
di quella cosa che tu piu ami ; your father sends you 
this present to comfort you with what is most dear to 
you. Piu used as an aclverb, for sommamente, grcmde- 
mente. 



SYNTAX OF SUPERLATIVES. 

Superlatives, as we observed page 79, are of two 
sorts, viz. the superlative comparative, and the superla- 
tive absolute. 

RULE XXVI. 

OF THE POSITION OF SUPERLATIVES. 

Superlatives, whether comparative or absolute, are 
placed either before or after their substantives, with this 
distinction, that when the former are put after the substan- 
tive, the article is more elegantly transposed, and placed 
before the said substantive. 



272 SYNTAX OF SUPERLATIVES. 

B. 3. 3. Ilfrate udendo questo,fa il piu turbato uomo 
del mondo ; the friar was the most uneasy man in the 
world on hearing this. 

Macch. E benche . . . potessino far le guerre piu lunghe ; 
and though they could carry on the longest wars. 

B. 5. 1. La quale come Cimon vide . . . con ammirazione 
grandissima la comincio a guardare ; as soon as Cymon 
saw her, he began to gaze on her with the utmost asto- 
nishment. 

B. 5. 1. NelF isola di Ciprifu un nobilissimo uomo, il 
quale fu chiamato Aristippo ; there lived in Cyprus a 
man of high rank called Aristippus. 

B. 2. 9. E camminando insieme pervennero in un 
vallone molto profondo; and as they travelled along, 
they came into a very deep valley. 

B. 10. 6. II qual piu per uno intramettere, che per 
molto cara o dileitevol vivanda . . .fu messo davanti al re ; 
which was put before the king, more as an additional dish 
than as an exquisite one. 

B. 4. 5. Erano adunque in Messina tre giovanifra- 
telli, e mercatanti, ed assai ricchi uomini rimasi dopo la 
morte del padre loro . ..ed avevano una lor sorella chia- 
mata IAsabetta, giovane assai bella e costumata ; there 
lived then, at Messina, three young merchants, who 
were brothers, and left very rich by their father ; and 
they had an only sister, called Elizabeth, a lady of 
merit and beauty. 

In the above examples the superlative either follows 
or precedes its substantive, ad libitum ; yet we do not 
advise the student to place it at random, because it 
sometimes happens that a construction of that kind may 
be destitute of harmony, if he has not yet accustomed 
his ear to such expressions ; but in order that no difficulty 
may arise in placing the superlative, when accompanied 
with its substantive, we say, that the best place of the 
superlative comparative is before the substantive ; as, il 
piu dotto uomo ; the most learned man ; that of the 
superlative absolute, ending in issimo, is either before 



SYNTAX OF SUPERLATIVES. 273 

or after the substantive; as, uomo dottissimo, or dottis- 
simo uomo ; a very learned man ; and that of the super- 
lative, formed by putting molto or assai, before the 
adjective, is placed after the substantive ; as, un uomo 
assal or molto dotto, and not un molto dotto uomo. It is 
to be observed that the particles piil, meno, &c. may not be 
put before each substantive, if more than one happen to 
be in the sentence, as it is seen in some of the above 
examples. 



OF THE GOVERNMENT OF SUPERLATIVES. 

RULE XXVII. 

The superlative absolute, as it generally ends a clause 
or sentence, has no noun or verb following it ; but the 
superlative comparative may govern either a noun or a 
verb. If it be a noun, that noun is to be put in the 
genitive. Ex. 

B. S. 3. II J rate udendo questofa il piu turbato uomo 
del mondo ; the friar was the most uneasy man in the 
world on hearing this. 

B, 10. 2. Venne a corte T abate Cligni il quale si crede 
essere un de* piu riccki prelati del mondo ; the abbot of 
Ciigni, who is reputed to be one of the richest prelates 
in the world, came to court. 

In both examples, del mondo is the genitive case of 
il piu turbato, and de* piil ricchi, superlatives com- 
parative. 

If it be a verb, that verb, whose nominative or any 
other case is one of the relative pronouns cite or quale, 
referring to the said superlative, is to be put in the sub- 
junctive, provided the action of the verb is doubtful or 
indeterminate. Ex. 

B. 4. 4. Era una delle piu belle creature, che mai dalla 
natura fosse statu formata ; she was one of the finest 
creatures that nature ever formed. 

B. 10. 10. Egli era il piu savio ed il piu avveduto 

n3 



274 SYNTAX OF SUPERLATIVES. 

uomo, che al rnondo fosse ; he was the wisest and most 
prudent man that ever lived. 

In both examples the verb fosse is put in the sub- 
junctive, because its action or its existence is indeter- 
minate; as, in saying she was the handsomest woman 
that nature ever formed, we only imagine it without 
asserting that it is so. 

But if the action of the verb is so certain as to 
leave no doubt behind, the verb is to be put in the indi- 
cative. Ex. 

Macch. Tutte le piu grosse quercie, tutti i piu grandi 
alberi, che a tanto furore non volevano cedere, furomy 
non solo sbarbati, ma discosto rnolto da dove avevano le 
loro radici portati ; all the largest oaks and trees which 
would not give way to its fury, (viz. of the storm), not 
only were rooted up, but carried away to a very con- 
siderable distance. 

Volevano is the verb put in the indicative, because its 
action is certain. 

Instead of the superlative comparative, we some- 
times find the superlative absolute with the subjunctive, 
thus : — 

B. 1 . 8. M. Erminio di Grimaldi„.di gram lunga tra- 
passava la ricchezza d^ogni altro ricchissimo cittadino che 
allora si sapesse m Italia ; Mr. Erminio de' Grimaldi by 
far surpassed in wealth any other rich man then known 
in Italy. 

Buom. lo per me credo che se Demostene o Cicerone 
avesser potato veder le sue prose, non si sarebbon sdegnati 
di leggerle e rileggerle, con celebrarle poi per una delle 
finissime opere che abbia Varte del dire ; as for me, I 
think that if Demosthenes and Cicero could have seen 
her prosaic compositions, they would not have refused 
to read them again and again, in order to celebrate 
them afterwards for the finest works that the art of 
rhetoric has produced. 

Si sapesse and abbia, are the subjunctives, which 



SYNTAX OF SUPERLATIVES. &75 

depend on che 9 referring to riechissimo cittadino and 
Jmissirne opere ; but these two superlatives absolute 
stand for the superlatives comparatives, piu ricco citta- 
dino, piil fine opere ; the former way of which, however, 
is better to be known than imitated. 

It is to be observed that the relative che or quale, 
following the superlative comparative, may be changed 
into di quanto, or di quanta ne, putting ne immediately 
before the verb, and making di quanta agree with its 
substantive, either expressed or understood, in gender 
and number. Ex. 

. Guarini Past. Fido. Fido Dameta, scegli tosto un torello 
di quanti n' abbia la feconda rnandra il piil morbido e 
hello ; faithful Dameta, choose the fattest and finest 
heifer, that is to be found in the herd. 

Boca Filoc. E fra se disse : Cortesissimo giovane e 
costui, di quanti io mai vedessi ; and she said to herself, 
this is the kindest youth I ever saw. 

EEMARKS ON piu WITH THE ARTICLE. 

Piii with the article, is not only a superlative com- 
parative, but an adverb of different significations. 

With the article il, it signifies generalrnente. 

B. 4 1. Ghismonda, conoscendo esser preso Guiscardo, 
dolor e inestimabile senfi, ed a mostrarlo con rornore, e con 
lagrime, come il piu. le Jemmine Jhnno, fu assai volte 
vicina ; as Ghismonda knew, that Guiscard had been 
arrested, she was under the greatest concern imaginable, 
and was going to break out into loud and grievous 
lamentations, as women generally do. 

With the article plural of both genders, it is put for la 
maggior parte di essi. 

B. Introd. Quasi tutti in fra 7 terzo giorno dalla 
apparizione de 1 sopradetti segni, ed i piu senza febbre, 
morivano ; almost all of them on the third day after the 
first appearance of the symptoms died, and the greatest 
part of them without any fever. 



276 SYNTAX OF NUMERAL NOUNS. 

B. 8. 3. II quale fu da Calandrino domandato dove 
queste pietre cos\ virtuose si trovassero. Maso rispose, 
die le piu si trovavano in Berlinzone ; Calandrino asked 
him where these wonderful stones were to be found. 
Maso said, that the greatest part of them were to be 
found in Berlinzone. 



SYNTAX OF NUMEKAL NOUNS. 

RULE XXVIII. 

Cardinal numbers have no article, and are indifferently 
placed either before or after their substantives. Ex. 

Bembo. Dicendomi che un suo zio era morto, ed aveagli 
lasciato dugento fiorini ; telling me, that an uncle of nis 
was dead, and had left him two hundred florins. 

Macch. jET questo castello posto propinquo a Firenze, ad 
otto miglia ; and this castle lies eight miles from Florence. 

G. Vill. Nel detto anno 1 328, si cornmcio, e fu due 
anni sequenti grande caro di grano . ..in Firenze, che di 
soldi 11 lo stqjo . . . il detto anno valse soldi 38 ; in the 
same year, 1328, there was such a scarcity of corn, which 
lasted for the two following years, that a bushel which 
before was sold for 1 7 pence, was the same year sold 
for 38. 

In the above examples dugento, otto, and due, cardinal 
numbers, precede Jiorini, miglia, and anni, substantives; 
and 17 and 38 follow soldi. 

If the cardinal number particularizes a substantive, or 
is followed by a substantive with a relative, the article 
is to be used. Ex. 

Metas. Le tre odi sugli effetti della musica ; the three 
odes on the effects of music. 

Metas. Dal nostro signor Abate Baronio mijurono... 
consegnati ed i due libri e la letter a di cui F E. V. si e 
eompiaciuta incaricarlo ; the Abbot Baronio has delivered 
me both the books and the letter with which you were 
pleased to charge him. 



SYNTAX OF NUMERAL NOtJNS. 27t 

The cardinal number, accompanied with a pronoun 
either relative, possessive, demonstrative, or indetermi- 
nate, is, together with it, to precede the substantive. 

Bembo. Ancorche avessero tre altri littori; though 
they had three other lictors. 

Bembo. Ricevuta jeri la vostra lettera, in risposta 
delta mia sopra i due libri vostri ; having yesterday 
received your letter, in answer to mine, about your two 
books. 

REMARKS ON UnO, AND ALL NUMBERS ENDING IN UUQ ; 

such as ventimo, trentuno, quarantuno, &c. 

Una masculine, and una feminine, as adjectives, have 
no plural, but as substantives they are used in the plu- 
ral, making uni, une> and especially with the corres- 
pondence of altro. 

B. Fiam. Poi immaginai di voter fare, siccome fecero 
i Saguntini, o gli Abided gli uni tementi Annibale Car- 
taginese, e gli altri Filippo Macedonico ; then I thought 
I should do as the Saguntines and Abydenes did, the 
former fearing Hannibal of Carthage, and the latter 
Philip of Macedon. 

B. 2. 7. Quanto piu posso, ti priego cite le mie cose ed 
ella ti sieno raccomandate, e quello dell' une, e delP altra 
facc% die credi, che sia consolazione dell 9 anima mia ; I do 
earnestly recommend to you her and my effects : and beg 
you will do with the former and the latter, .what you 
think proper to console me. 

With respect to ventuno, trentuno, centuno, &c, we 
say that they make ventuna, trentuna, &c. for the femi- 
nine, and have no plural. Their respective substantives, 
however, are to be plural, when preceding the number, 
and singular when following it. 

D. Conv. Abbiamo di Platone, che esso vivette ott&n- 
tuno anno ; they say that Plato lived eighty-one years. 

D. Conv. Poi per la medesima via pare descendere 
altre novantuna ruota ; then he seemed to descend 
ninety-one more circles by the same way* 



278 SYNTAX OF NUMERAL NOUNS. 

Davan. Pisone visse anni trentuno ; Piso lived thirty- 
one years. 

The substantive is to be plural, though preceded by 
trentuno, &c., provided the said numbers have an article. 
Ex. 

Vill. Enea ed Ascanio suo Jigliuolo e tutta sua gente 
delle ventuna navi, che in quel porto si ritrovarono, la 
detta reina accohe con grande onore; the said queen 
honourably received iEneas, Ascanius his son, and all 
the crews of the twenty-one ships, which arrived in that 
port. 

A verb, the subject of which is one of the above- 
mentioned numbers ending in uno, with its substantive, 
is to be put in the plural without exception ; and the 
adjective, if there happen to be one, must be plural, 
though the substantive be in the singular, as is seen in 
the example of Dante, as given above, altre novantuna 
ruota, and in the following one of Petrarch. 

Caniando anni trentuno interi spesi ; I consumed 
thirty-one years in the study of the muses. 

These observations, which we have taken from JBuom- 
mattei and Cinonio, seem to be accurate, because founded 
upon reason ; as they say, that when the substantive 
numbered is put before, it is made to agree with the 
larger number, viz., venti, trenta, quaranta ; and when 
the said substantive is put after, it is made to agree with 
uno, thus ; ottanta e uno anno, novanta e una ruota. 
Yet I have found many other writers of more modern 
date, who have not followed the above rules. 

Macch. 1st. Fior. Di qui nacque che...tenne uno stato 
trentun anni ; hence it came, that he governed a state 
for thirty-one years. 

Metas. Let. Trover ete... Toper a delV Alessandro nelF 
Indie pitt corta di quello chejinora £ stata di 561 versi ; 
you will find the opera of Alessandro neTT Indie five 
hundred and sixty-one lines shorter than it has hitherto 
been. 



SYNTAX OF NUMERAL NOUNS. 279 

Metas. Let. Ben singolare e la vostra richiesta...da 
me die sono da 41 anni in Germania ; you request some- 
thing very singular from me, who have been about forty- 
one years in Germany. 

In the above examples it is clearly seen that the 
substantives anni and versi are in the plural, though 
following the number ; and that Macchiavelli and Metas- 
task) seem to have considered the numbers ending in uno 
not as adjectives but as adverbs ; and why should not 
ventuno, trentuno, quarantuno, be the same as all other 
numbers which are considered as adverbs, and conse- 
quently indeclinable ? 



RULE XXIX. 

Ordinal numbers, like adjectives, agree with their 
substantives in gender and number, are placed before 
their substantives, and take an article. Ex. 

B. Int. Anzi quasi tutti 9 infra il terzo giorno daW 
apparizione dei sopradetti segni...morivano ; nay, almost 
all died the third day after the first appearance of the 
symptoms. 

J. Pass. La settima cosa die c'induce a Jar penitenza 
e ; the seventh thing which induces us to do pe- 
nance, is. 

Bemb. E die in quel primi giorni, di sul rnonte delta 
Triniia vi void sopra la testa htl aquila ; and that in 
those first days, on the mountain of Trinity an eagle 
ilew over your head. 

Sometimes ordinal numbers are used without the sub- 
stantive, but then it is understood. Ex. 

B. Intr. Molti altri servavano...una mezzana via, rum 
string endosi nelle vivande quant l o i primi, ne nel here... 
quanto i secondi ; many others chose a method between 
the two, not confining themselves in eating like the 
former, nor in drinking like the latter. To primi and 
secondi is understood uomini, persone, &c. 



280 SYNTAX OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 



RULE XXX. 

Ordinal numbers, in speaking of quotations, are 
generally put after the substantive, without any article. 
Ex. 

Sann. Arcadia, prosa terza ; Arcadia, third prose. 

Bocc. Giornata nana, novella ottava ; the ninth day, 
novel the eighth. 

Valerio Massimo, libro ottavo; Valerius Maximus, 
book the eighth. 



RULE XXXI. 

Ordinal numbers, in speaking of popes, emperors, 
kings, and other dignitaries, are ufced without an article. 
Ex. 

Cast. Che cos\ dicono contenersi nella holla di Carlo 
quarto ; for so, they say, it is in the bull of Charles the 
Fourth. 

Alg. Let. II ricevimento fatto ...da quella nobile 
Jumiglia ad Arrigo terzo, re di Francia ; the reception 
which Henry the third, king of France, experienced 
from that noble family. 



SYNTAX OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

One of the greatest difficulties that the student of the 
Italian language has to encounter, is the construction of 
the personal pronouns and their derivatives ; yet modern 
grammarians, under pretence either of being concise, or 
of not enlarging their volume, have been very sparing 
on this subject ; and even then, they have so confusedly 
explained the matter, that students, after reading their 
observations, are as much in the dark as before. But as 
we consider this part of the grammar to be of the greatest 
importance, we have expatiated upon this point, to ren- 
der it as clear as possible by rules and examples. 



SYNTAX OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 281 



OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS IN THE FIRST STATE, VIZ. Io, 

tu, noi, voi, egli, ella, eglino, elleno, esso, essa 9 essi, 
esse. 

RULE XXXII. 

Io, tu, noi, voi, being the subjects of a discourse, 
may, at pleasure, be left out both in speaking and writ- 
ing ; all the others are always to be expressed, in order 
to distinguish the gender ; for were we to say canta 
sings, parla speaks ; we should not know whether the 
singer or the speaker be a man or a woman. 

B. 4. 1. Tancredi, ne a negare, ne a pregare son 
disposta ; Tancred, I am neither inclined to deny, nor 
to pray. 

B. 4. 10. Madonna, io vidi quesia sera al tardi...un' 
area non troppo grande ; Madam, I saw late in the 
evening, a good large chest. 

B. 4. 3. Marsilia, come voi sapete, e in Provenza 
sopra la rnarina posta, antica e nohilissima citta ; 
Marseilles, as you know, is an ancient and famous city 
of Provence, situated on the sea side. 

B. 10. 8. II che se savj sete, lietamente comporterete ; 
If you be wise, you will take it in good part. 

In the above examples, the pronouns io, and voi, are 
expressed or understood at pleasure ; and the author 
would not have committed any fault, had he said, io son 
disposta, vidi questa sera, come sapete, se voi savj sete. 

B. 10. 8. E che fareste voi piu se egli ad un villano, 
ad un servo data Tavesse ? what could you do more, had 
he given her to a scoundrel or a slave ? 

B. 10. 8. Ella dunque, cioe Sqfronia . . . e mia : she 
then, viz. Sophronia, is mine. 

B. Int. Non a quella chiesa, cK esso avea anzi la 
morte disposto ; ma alia piu vicina il portavano ; they 
did not carry him to that church where he had desired 
to be buried, but to the nearest one. 



282 SYNTAX OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

In these three examples, the pronouns egli, ella, esso, 
are expressed, otherwise it would produce ambiguity. 

1. All these pronouns, however, when expressed, are 
to be used only once, and that in the beginning of the 
sentence. 

B. 4. 1. Quegli vuole, cK\o ti perdoni, e questi vuole, 
che contra a rnia natura in te incrudelisca ; one pleads 
strongly in your behalf, and the other would excite me 
to do a cruel act, contrary to my nature. Io, in this 
sentence, is the subject of perdoni and incrudelisca, and 
it is expressed only once. 

B. 3. 10. Tu il saprai ben tosto, e farai quello che a me 

Jar vedrai ; thou wilt know it very soon, and do what 1 

am going to do myself. Tu, in this sentence, is the 

subject of saprai. Jurat, and vedrai, and it is expressed 

only once. 

B. 10. 8. Al quale egli, per la miseria nella quale era, 
nan ardi dijar motto, ma ingegnossi difarglisi vedere ; 
to whom he did not dare to speak a single word, on 
account of his poverty ; but put himself in his way, in 
hopes of being seen by him. Egli is the subject of ard\ 
and ingegnossi. 



RULE XXXIII. 

When a sentence, no matter how long, is composed 
of divers subjects, the pronouns io, noi, egli, &c. are 
to be expressed with each verb of which they are the 
subjects. Ex. 

B. 4. 3 Voi siete ricchissimi giovani, quello che non 
sono io ; you are both very rich, and I am otherwise. 

B. 4. 3. Voi . . .di grandissimo amore delle due giovam 
amaie da voi ardete, ed io della terza loro sorella; you 
have the utmost regard for the two young ladies, whom 
you love, and I have the same for the third sister. 

B. 4. 1. Ma prima che io partito prenda, disidero cT 
udire quello che tu a questo del dire ; but before I come 



SYNTAX OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 283 

to a resolution, I wish to hear what thou hast to say 
about it. 

B. !()• 8. E s il vero, che egli e Ateniese, ed io Romano. 
Se delta gloria della citta si disputera, io diro, che io sia 
di citta libera, ed egli di tributaria : io diro, che io sia di 
citta donna di tutto il mondo, ed egli di citta obbediente 
alia mia : io diro, che io sia di citta jiorentissima d? arme, 
(F imperio e di study, dove egli non potrd la sua, se nan 
di stud) commendare ; he indeed is an Athenian, and I 
am a Roman ; but if we wish to speak of the glory of 
each city, I say, that I was born in a free city, he in a 
tributary one : that I belong to a city which is the mis- 
tress of the whole world, he to a city under her subjec- 
tion ; that I am of a city famed for arms, extent of 
empire, and all sorts of polite learning, he of a city only 
remarkable for philosophy. 

In the above examples all the pronouns are expressed ; 
not because the author liked to do it, but because he was 
obliged; and if one of them should be suppressed, the 
sentences would not only be destitute of energy, but in 
some cases would not be intelligible. The student then 
will never commit a fault in expressing the personal 
pronouns in such kinds of sentences ; and we think it is 
always the best, as by that means they will be more 
energetic and expressive than without them. 

Remarks upon io, tu, egli, e\ &, ella, esso, essa, and 
their plurals. 

1. Io, tu, egli, ella, eglino, elleno, preceded by come, 
siccome, qucmto, are changed into me, ie, lui, lei, loro, 
provided the verb of which they are subjects is not 
expressed. Ex. 

B. Filoc. Sicche, quanto me puote essere cdcun dolente ; 
so that any body may be as afflicted as I am. 

But if the verb, of which io, tu, egli, &c. are subjects, 
is expressed, they are not to be changed. Ex. 

B. 7. 4. Che direste voi, se io Jbssi nella via, come e 
egli, od egli fosse in casa come sono io ? what would 



2Si SYNTAX OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

yoa say if I were in the street as he is, or he within 
doors as I am ? Come egli e, and come sono io, instead 
of come lui, and come me, because the verbs e and sono 
are expressed. 

When the verb essere or credere, is to be put between 
two of these pronouns, and signifies a transmutation from 
one to the other of them, that pronoun which follows 
essere or credere, is to be put in the accusative ; that is, 
it is changed into me, te, lui, lei, loro. Ex. 

B. 9. 7. La donna domando se Anichmo fosse al gim- 
dino venuto. Egano disse, cost non fosse egli, per- 
ciocche credendo esso, cli io fossi te, m? ha can un bastone 
iutto rotto ; the lady asked whether Anichino had come 
into the garden; Egano replied, Would to Heaven he had 
stayed away ! for believing me to be you, he has broken 
all my bones with a cudgel. 

Caro Let. Io son qui con uno, che per avere il mio 
?iome vuole esser me in ogni cosa, o piu tosto cK io sia 
lui; I am here with a person, who, in order to have my 
name in all he does, wishes to be myself, or rather to 
say, that I should be he. 

Firenz. Tanto posso disporre di lui, che io uso dire, 
che certo e' sia un altro me ; I can so much depend on 
him, that I am wont to say, that he is certainly another 
self. 

B. 3. 7. Maravigliossi forte Tedaldo che alcuno in 
tanto il somigliasse, che fosse creduto lui; Tedaldo 
wondered much that any one should be so much like 
himself, as to be taken for him. To fosse creduto lui, 
egli is understood, thus, egli fosse creduto lui. 

2. Egli, whether abridged or syncopated, is sometimes 
used as an expletive, and it answers to the English par- 
tides, there or it ; but with this difference, that egli may 
be used as the subject of a verb, either in the singular 
or in the plural ; and it, in English, is used with a 
verb in the singular only. Ex. 

B, 2. 2. Egli era in questo castello una donna vedova; 
there was a widow lady in that castle. 



SYNTAX OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 285 

B. 5. 10. Udendo la donna queste cose conobbe, che 
egli erano delV alire cost savie come ella fosse ; the lady 
hearing that account, perceived that there were other 
women of the same disposition with herself. Egli plural, 
subject of erano. 

B. 5. 4. Disse la madre : ojigliuola rnia che caldo fa 
egli ? anzi nonfa caldo veruno; daughter, said the mother, 
do you talk of heat ? I do not think that it is very hot. 

B. 3. 7. Color v sono di nero vestiti; perciocche e ' nxm 
sono ancora quindici d\, che un lor fratelh fa ucciso ; 
they are dressed in black, because about a fortnight since 
a brother of theirs was murdered. E J plural, subject of 
sono. 

Ella also is used as an expletive, but not so frequently 
as egli. Ex. 

B. 9. 5. Come la donna udi questo, levatasi in pie, 
comincio a dire : ella non andra cos\ che io non te ne 
paghi ; on hearing this, the lady arose, and began to 
say : It shall not be so, for I will pay you for it. 

The student, however, ought not easily to hazard the 
use of these expletives, unless he is pretty far advanced 
in the study of Italian ; for though these pronouns, 
used as expletives, add much elegance to the dis- 
course or composition, they disfigure it when improperly 
applied. 

3. Esso, essa, essi, esse, are used as adjectives, and 
placed before their substantives with which they are to 
agree. They are not rendered by he or she, but this or 
these, and sometimes by the above. Ex. 

B. 2. 3. Ed ebbe tre jigliuoli quando esso Messer 
Tedaldo ricchissimo venne a morte ; and he had three 
children, when this Mr. Tedaldo died very rich. 

B. 5. 2. La quale essa lei che forte dormiva chiamo piu 
volte ; who several times called this woman, that was fast 
asleep. 

Esso, put between the preposition con, and the pro- 
nouns lui, lei, loro, and also meco, teco, seco, serves for 



286 SYNTAX OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

both genders and numbers, and it is used as an exple- 
tive. Ex. 

B. 7. 1. E poi deW altre volte ritrovandosi con la, 
donna* molto di questa incantazione rise con esso lei ; and 
afterwards when he was with the lady, he used to laugh 
with her about this enchantment. 

B. 7. 1. Cominciarono a cantare, e la valle insieme 
con esso loro, quelle medesime canzoni dicendo, che esse 
dicevano ; they began to sing, and the valley together 
with them, or rather, and the valley echoed their songs. 

B. 2.5. Davero tu cenerai con esso meco; indeed, 
said she, thou shalt sup with me. 

4. Egli, ella, eglino, elleno, esso, essa, essi, esse, are 
often joined with stesso, stessa, stessi, stesse, medesvmo, 
medesima, medesimi, medesime, in order to give more 
energy to the sentence in question ; and they are ren- 
dered in English he himself, she herself, they them- 
selves. Ex. 

B. 3. 8. Per che parendogli esser vivo, comincio a gri- 
dare, apritemi, apritemi, ed egli stesso apontar col capo 
nel coperchio delV area; for thinking he was alive, he 
cried out loud, saying, u Open ! open !" and he himself 
began to push the cover of the vault with his head. 

B. 4. 4. Di che il re turhato forte, fece prendere il 
Gerbino, edegli medesimo...ilcondanndnella testa; much 
concerned at this, the king had Gerbino seized, and he 
himself ordered his head to be struck off. 

B. 10. 3. E sommamientejacendolo onorare, esso stesso 

fii tenea compagnia ; and having ordered him to be 
onoured, he himself kept him company. 
B. Pro. Avendo essi stessi quando sani erano esemplo 
dato a coloro che sani rimanevano ; they themselves, when 
they were well, having given example to those who 
remained healthy. 

B. 3. 1. Elle non sam.no delle sette volte le sei quello, cti 
elle si vogliono elleno stesse ; six times out of seven they 
do not know what they want. 



SYNTAX OF DISJUNCTIVE PRONOUNS. 287 



SYNTAX OF DISJUNCTIVE PRONOUNS. 



Gen. Sing, di me 




Abl Sing. 


da me 


di te 






da te 


di lui 






da lui 


di lei 






da lei 


di se 






da se 


Plural dinoi 




Plural.... 


.da noi 


di voi 






da voi 


di loro 






da loro 




RULE XXXIV. 





These pronouns, which we call disjunctives, are the 
genitives and ablatives of the personal pronouns, (see 
page 91), and are to be used instead of the pronoun 
relative ne, (which has all the above significations), 
whenever they have no particular or close reference to 
any noun. Their natural situation is after the verb by 
which they are accompanied; and if they are found 
before it, the student is to know that this inversion is a 
grammatical figure, which will be spoken of in treating 
of the figurative construction. 

Di lui. B. Filoc* Ta/rolfo..An se dubitava, won quest % 
si facesse heffe di lui; Tarolfo... doubted whether he 
laughed at him. 

Di me. B. Fiam. E detto questo, me di me las- 
ciavano piu die Vusato pietosa ; and having spoken 
thus, they left me more afflicted than usual. This 
phrase belongs to the figurative construction, as the 
natural one is — e detto questo lasciavano me piil pietosa 
di me. 

Di te. B. 8. 7. Io avrei di te scritte cose che... di te 
stessa vergognandoii, f avresti cavati gli occhj ; I would 
have written such things of thee, that thou, being 
ashamed of thyself, wouldst have torn thy eyes out. The 
regular construction of this phrase is — che vergogncmdoti 
di te stessa, &c. 



288 SYNTAX OF DISJUNCTIVE PRONOUNS. 

Da me. B. Lab. E del beneficio da me ricevuto doMa 
Genitrice della nostra salute, sarai testirnonio ; and you 
will be a witness of the grace I have received from the 
mother of our Saviour. The regular construction of 
this phrase is — e sarai testirnonio del beneficio ricevuto da 
me dalla Genitrice della nostra salute. 

Da se. B. 10. 4. II quale poicfie ogni paura ebbe 
cacciata da se, trovo costei per certa non esser morta ; 
who, throwing all fear aside, was convinced she certainly 
was not dead. 

Da loro. B. 2. 7. Li quattro uomini molto mi domanda- 
rono : ma ne da loro fui intesa ; the four men put a great 
many questions to me, but I was not understood by 
them. The regular construction is, nejui intesa da loro. 

In all these examples we cannot make use of ne, in- 
stead of di me, di te, da loro, &c. because there is no 
particular object to which those words could refer ; but 
when there is an antecedent, instead of di me, di te, da 
me, da te, &c., ne is to be used, as in the following ex- 
amples. 

Pass. Non deve rivolger gli occhj Vuomo da Dio o dis- 
costarsene ; a man ought not to lose sight of God, or 
depart from him. 

Bembo. lo non ho parlato con lo spagnuolo, ne mi 
vaglio di lui, ne ho alcuno de^ miei che se ne serva ; I 
have not spoken to the Spaniard, nor do I make use of 
him, neither do any of my friends. 

In these two examples, ne refers to da Dio, and di lui, 
and it would not have been proper to say discostarsi da 
lui, nor che si serva di lui. 

syntax of disjunctive pronouns — continued. 



Dat. Sing, a me 


Ace. Sing, me 


a te 


te 


a lui 


lui 


a lei 


lei 


a se 


se 


Plural anoi 


Plural noi 


a voi 


voi 


a loro 


- loro 



SYNTAX OF DISJUNCTIVE PRONOUNS. £89 



RULE XXXV. 

These pronouns, which we call disjunctives, are the 
datives and accusatives of personal pronouns (see page 
91), and are to be used instead of the conjunctive pro- 
nouns, mi, ii, si, gli, le, ci, vi, and the relative pro- 
nouns, lo, la, gli, li, le, in order to give a stronger 
expression or energy to the composition or discourse, 
and their position is either before or after the verb, 
Ex. 

Pass. E udendo che egli aveva tnorti due co?ifessori, 
dissejra se medesimo ; me non ucciderai tu ; and when 
he heard that he had murdered two confessors, he said 
to himself ; thou shalt not murder me. 

B. Fiam. Se tu Jbrtemente ami lui... egli di cid non 
ha colpa ; if you love him much, it is not his fault. 

B. Introd. Io costituisco Parmeno mio siniscalco, e a 
lui la cur a di tutta la nostra famiglia commetto ; I de- 
clare Parmeno master of my household, and to him I 
commit the care of my family. 

B. 2. 7. Comprese per gli arnesi ricchi,la donna che 
trovata avea, dovere essere gran gentil donna, e lei pres- 
tamente conobbe alV onore che vedeva daW altrefare a lei 
sola ; by the richness of her dress he supposed her to be 
some person of great consequence, which appeared more 
plainly by the great respect that was paid to her by all 
the women. 

In the above examples, the author might have said 
instead, tu non mi ucciderai. Se tu Jbrtemente lo ami. 
Io costituisco Parmeno mio siniscalco, e gli commetto la 
cura, fyc. E la conobbe prestamente ; but this way 
would be destitute of all energy and effect, as we ob- 
served before* 

These pronouns are used whenever in a sentence one 
verb governs two or more objective cases, or when two 
different subjects with their verb govern each a pronoun, 
or one a pronoun and the other a noun. 

o 



290 SYNTAX OF DISJUNCTIVE PRONOUtfS. 

B. 3. 9. Ma, dove voi voleste, per amentum, voi 
potreste\6\, e me consolare ; but if you wished, you might 
perhaps console both yourself and me. Consolare governs 
two pronouns, voi and me. 

B. 3. 6. E questo facendo, la ''ngiuria, die a voi, ed 
a me far vuole, vendichiate ; and by so doing, you will 
avenge the injury, which is designed both for yourself 
and me. Far vuole governs two pronouns, a voi and 
a me. 

B. 10. 8. E percib...io tipriego die di questa afflizion 
togliendoti ad un > ora consoli te e me ; and therefore I 
beg thou wilt shake off thy affliction, and at the same 
time console thyself and me. Consolare governs two 
pronouns, te and me. 

B. 5. 8. Nel quale come ella discese, cosi ne fa ed a 
lei, ed a me, per pena dato, a lei di fuggirmi d'avanti, 
ed a me die gia cotanto Vamai di seguitarla ; into which, 
as soon as she descended, we heard our condemnation, 
which was, for her to flee before me, and for me, who 
loved her so well, to pursue her. Fu dato per pena 
governs a lei and a me, both pronouns. 

B. 10. 8. Se rt ando a casa il padre suo, e quivi a lui 
ed alia madre narro lo ''nganno ; she went to her father's, 
and declared to him and her mother the whole treachery. 
Narro governs a lui a pronoun, and alia madre a 
noun. 

B. 3. 6. E percio non vogliate ad urf ora vituperar 
voi, e mettere in pericolo ed in briga vostro marito e 
me ; therefore, do not shame your own self, and make 
mischief between your husband and me. Mettere in 
pericolo, &c, governs vostro marito a noun, and me a 
pronoun. 

B. 10. 4. Voi avete onorato il mio convito, ed to voglio 
onorar voi alia persesca ; you have done honour to my 
feast, and I will honour you according to the Persian 
manner. In this example we see two different subjects 
with their verbs, one governing mio convito, and the 
other governing voi a pronoun. 

These pronouns are to be used instead of mi, ti, si, 



SYNTAX OF DISJUNCTIVE PRONOUNS. 291 

gli, le, ci, vi, whenever they are followed by stesso, mede- 
simo^ solo, or some other adjectives of a similar kind, 
which are to agree with them in gender and number, 
and also when they are followed by certain adverbs, 
such as anche, pure, anco, solamente, proprio, &c. 

B. 3. 8. Per le quali cose io piii die me stessa Tamo ; 
for which reason, I love him more than T do myself. 

B. 10. 8. Apri gli occhj dello ""ntelletto, e te medesimo 
o misero riconosci ; open the eyes of thy understanding, 
unfortunate man, and know thyself. 

B. 3. 10. Dioneo . . . sentendo che a lui solo restava il 
dire . . . sorridendo disse ; Dioneus perceiving that it 
only remained for him to tell his (a novel), said with a 
smile. 

Caro Let. Accettatelo per amico, con tutte quelle ac- 
coglienze che fareste a me proprio ; receive him as a 
friend, and honour him as you would do me. 

These pronouns are to be used with the present par- 
ticiple ending in ante or in ente, (see participles for its 
formation), and are generally put before it. Ex. 

B. 4. 3. Fosco da dolor vinto, tiratafuori una spada, 
lei in vano merce addomandante uccise ; Fosco being 
provoked to the last degree, drew his sword and stabbed 
her, she begging in vain for mercy. 

B. 5. 5. La quale lui sagliente chiamo padre ; who 
seeing him go up stairs, called papa. 

B. 3. 10. Ed i conigli e gli altri animali che lor 
sedentijforstf cento volte eran venuti a dar noja, si die- 
dero a seguire ; and they began to run after the rabbits 
and other animals which had been continually skipping 
about them whilst they were sitting down. 

B. 10. 7. II re sifece chiamare un giovane., e postegli 
certe anella in mano a lui non recusante di farlo Jece 
sposare la Lisa ; the king sent for a young man, and 
having put a ring into his hand, caused him not unwil- 
lingly to espouse her. 

Me, te, se, lui, lei, loro, accusatives, are used instead 
o2 



292 SYNTAX OF DISJUNCTIVE PRONOUNS. 

of io, tu y egli, ella, eglino, elleno, &c. nominatives, when 
accompanied with an infinitive, provided they are put 
before the said infinitive ; for if they follow it, the nomi- 
native is to be used. See construction of infinitives. 

Borg. E son forzato a dire, lui aver ragione ; and I 
am obliged to say, that he is in the right. 

B. 10. 9. Si dolse lei (T amicizia) oggi cost poco da? 
mortali esser gradita ; she complained of its being in 
such little esteem with mankind. 

B. 3. 7. Apertamente co?ifessarono n se esser stati coloro, 
che Tedaldo JElisei ucciso aveano ; they openly confessed 
that they had murdered Tedaldo Elisei. 

The disjunctive pronouns, when accusatives, are to 
be used whenever they are preceded by a preposition, or 
a word expressing grief, joy, contempt, such as infelice, 
sfortunato) felice, beato, misero* cattivo, &c. 

B. Fiam. Temendo che ella per se non la tenesse, la ri- 
chiamai indietro ; fearing lest she would keep it for her- 
self, I called her back. 

B. 3. 3. Stimo costui dovere essere ottimo rnezzano tra 
lei, ed il suo amcmte ; she judged that he would be the 
fittest person to go between her and her lover. 

B. 7. 6. Ella mando per Lionetto, che si venisse a star 
con lei ; she sent word to Lionetto to come and pass the 
day with her. 

B. 3. 6. /o, misera me, gia sono otto anni, f ho pitt 
che la mia vita amato ; unfortunate that I am ! I have 
fondly loved you for eight whole years. 

B. 9. 6. Oime, cattiva me, vedi quel che io faceva ; 
alas, bless me, I had like to have made a strange 
mistake. 

Alamanni. Beato lui, che casto a morte venue ; happy 
was he that died unsullied. 

Disjunctive pronouns in the dative case, are to be 
used with the verbs toccare, spettare, when they mean 
to be one's turn ; pensare, to think ; appartenere, to 
belong ; and all the verbs of motion, such as andare ? to 
go ; venire, to come ; ritornare, to go back. 



SYNTAX OF CONJUNCTIVE AND RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 293 

B. 3. 3. DP a Calandrino, che egli si tenga ben caldo, 
ed io verro a lui incontanente ; tell Calandrino to keep 
himself warm, and I will come to him immediately. 

SYNTAX OF CONJUNCTIVE AND RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

There are twelve monosyllables in Italian, which are 
sometimes conjunctive, sometimes relative, sometimes 
reflective, and at other times expletive particles ; of all 
of which we will speak separately, to render them more 
intelligible to the student. 

Conjunctives. 

mi .....to vie, or me 

ti to thee, or thee 

gli to him, or him 

le to her, or her 

si Jo himself, to herself, himself, herself 

ci or ne to us, or us 

vi to you, or you 

Relatives. 

il or lo him, or it 

la her or it 

gli or li them masculine 

le them feminine 

Mi, ti, si, ci, vi, are also reflective particles; they 
serve to conjugate reflective verbs, see page 203, and 
signify myself, thyself, himself, herself ourselves, your- 
selves, themselves. 

Mi, ti, si, ci, vi, ne, are also expletive particles, which 
are thrown into the discourse for the sake of elegance. 
See its treatise. 

Ci and vi are also adverbs, and signify there, thither, 
here, hither, to it, into it, of it, with it, about, round it. 



RULE XXXVI. 

All these words, whether conjunctives, relatives, re- 
flectives, expletives, or adverbs, are to be put immedi- 



294 SYNTAX OF CONJUNCTIVE 

ately before or after the verb finite, with this difference, 
that when they are placed after, they are to make one 
word with it. 

Examples of the Conjunctive and Relative Pronouns. 

B. 3. 3. Io vi voglio dire cio 9 die quel vostro amico mi 
fece stamane ; I will tell you what your friend did this 
morning. Mi a dative. 

B. 3. 7. Deh, crudel uonio, se egli ti fu tanto grave la 
maladetta notte, e parveti ilfallo mio cost grande, die ne 
ti possono muovere a pietate alcuna le amare lagrime... 
muovati alquanto questo mio atto ; Ah, cruel man, if 
that cursed night still galls thee, and my crime appears 
-so heinous that my tears cannot move thee, let this last 
act of mine move thee a little. In this example ti 
precedesj^, and follows parve making one word with 
it, in each instance a dative. 

B. 4. 6. Gabriotto la domando qual fosse la cagione ; 
Gabriotto asked her the cause. La accusative. 

B. 8. 1. Ma guar date die voi non ci faceste la beffa ; 
But beware putting a trick upon us. Ci a dative. 

B. 1. I. II mandarlo fuori di casa cosi irifermo, ne 
sarebbe gran biasimo ; to turn him out of doors in this 
condition would afford matter for reproach. Ne instead 
of ci a dative. 

B. 4. 5. Assai volte la notte pietosamente il chiamava ; 
a great many times in the night would she lament and 
call him by name. II instead of lo accusative, &c. &c. 

Examples of the Expletive Particles. 

B. 3. 1. Io mi credo die le suore sieno tutte a dormire ; 
I think that all the nuns are retired to rest. 

B. 5. 3. Che tu con noi ti rimanga per questa sera n* 
e caro ; we shall be glad if you will stay with us this 
evening. 

B. 9. 7. Io non so se voi vi conoscete Talano di Molese ; 
I know not whether you are acquainted with Talano di 
Molese, 



AND RELATIVE PUONOUNS. #95 

B. 2. 8. Del palagio s'usci, e fuggissi a casa sua; he 
hastened out of the palace, and fled to his own house. 

In the above examples the marked particles are exple- 
tives, which are inserted more for the sake of elegance 
than otherwise, and would by no means alter the sense 
were they to be omitted. 

Examples of ci and vi as Adverbs. 

B. 5. 3. Disse la giovane: E come^ ci sono abitanze 
presso da potere albergare ? A cui il buon uomo rispose ; 
non ci sono in niun luogo si presso die tu di giorno vi 
potessi arrivare ; the young lady said : And how then, 
is there any inn hereabouts, wherein I may pass the 
night ? The good man answered : There is none near 
enough for you to proceed to by daylight. 

B. 3. 8. E se egli avviene, die tu mai vi torni, fa die 
tu non sii mai piu geloso ; and if it happen that you 
come hither again, take care to be jealous no longer. 

B. 9- 3. Deliberar tutti e tre di dover trovar modo 
cP ungersi ilgrifo alle spese di Calandrino ; e senza troppo 
indugio darvi... Nello disse; all three agreed to feast 
themselves well at the expense of Calandrino ; and with- 
out losing time . . . Nello said. Darvi for dare a cid 3 or 
alia lor risoluzione. 

B. Fiam. Queste parole . . . e senza rispondervi alcuna 
cosa ascoltai ; I listened to these words without answering 
anything. Rispondervi^ that is, senza rispondere loro. 

But if the finite verb is accompanied with an infini- 
tive, these words may either be put before the verb finite 
or after the infinitive ; and then the said infinitive is to 
lose its last vowel, and make one word with the par- 
ticle. Ex. 

B. 3. 9. Monsig?iore, disse Beltramo, voi mi potete 
torre quanto io tengo^ e donarmi . . . a chi vi piace ; Sire, 
said Beltram, you may take from me all I possess, and 
dispose of my person to whomsoever you please. Mi 
is put before potete a finite verb, and after the infinitive 
donarmi. 



296 SYNTAX OF CONJUNCTIVE 

These pronouns are to follow the imperative, gerund, 
and participle. Ex. 

B. 8. 7. Muovati alquanto questo solo rnio atto; let 
this act of mine at least move you. 

Gang. Siatemi adunque sempre bum amico ; Be then 
always my friend. 

B. 5. 8. Adunque lasciami la divina giustizia mandare 
ad esecuzione; then let the divine justice take its 
course. 

B. 5. 9. Io son venuta a ristorarti d£ danni, li quali 
tu hai gia avuti per me, amandomi piu die stato non ti 
sarebbe bisogno ; I am come to make you some amends 
for what you have formerly done on my account, and for 
the love you bore me. 

B. 5. 9. Federigo ricordandoti delta tua preterita vita; 
Frederick, if you recai to your mind your past life. 

B. 5. 8. E la domenica seguente Nastagio sposatala... 
con lei...lietamente visse ; and being united to her on 
the following Sunday, he lived very happily with her. 

B. 4. 10. Ne a cid sappiendosi consigliare, chiamd la 
sua fante, e la sua disavventura mostratale, le chiese 
consiglio; not knowing how to order it herself, she 
called her maid, and having told her what had happened, 
she asked her advice. 

The imperative only, being accompanied with a nega- 
tive, requires these pronouns to precede it. Ex. 

B. 5. 8. Nastagio, non t' impacciare, lascia fare cH 
cani e a me quello die questa malvagiafemina ha meri- 
tato ; Anastasius, do not concern thyself, but leave the 
dogs and me to do by this wicked woman as she has 
deserved. 

Gang. Non si renda ridicola circa le usanze del mondo ; 
do not make yourself ridiculous respecting the customs of 
the world. 

If the student finds these pronouns preceding the par- 
ticiples and gerunds, contrary to the above rules, he is 
not to imitate that practice, for it belongs to the figura- 
tive construction. 



gffl) RELATIVE FR0N01TNS. 297 

These pronouns, either conjunctive or relative, are 
always to follow ecw, making one word with it. Ex. 

B. 8. 7. Lo scolare udendosi chiamare 9 disse eccomi ; 
the scholar hearing himself called, said, Here I am. 

B. 3. 3. Eccole, che ella medesima me V ha recate ; 
here they are ; she has brought them herself. 

It is to be observed, that whenever one of these par- 
ticles, with the exception of gl% is put after a word 
derived from a verb ; if that word is a monogram (a 
word composed of one letter), or a monosyllable, or has 
the last letter with a grave accent, the first letter of the 
said particle is to be doubled. Ex. 

B. 10. 6. Or a evvi cosi tosto dalla memoria caduto, le 
violenze fatte da Manfredi ? have you already so soon 
forgotten that Manfredi took the same liberties ? Evvi 
for vi e ; vi an adverb, and e a monogram. 

B. 9. 3. Vattene, e di* a Calandrino, che egli si ienga 
ben caldo ; go, and bid Calandrino keep himself warm. 
Vattene composed of va a monosyllable, and tene ex- 
pletive. 

B. 9. 3. Vavvi, e sappirni ridire come il fatio sta; 
go thither, and let me know how matters stand with me. 
Vavvi composed of va a monosyllable, and vi an 
adverb. 

B. 9. 10. Dirovvi adunque una novella non troppo 
lunga; I will tell you a tale, which shall not be very 
long. Dirovvi composed of diro a word the last vowel 
of which is accented, and vi a pronoun conjunctive. 

B. 9. 3. Disse Nello ...fiaforse altro ; e lasciollo an- 
dare ; Nello said, it may be something else, and then let 
him go. Lasciollo composed of lascid a word the last 
vowel of which is accented, and loa relative pronoun. 

B. 9. 3. Io verrd a lui incontcmente, e dirogli do che 
egli ha> e do che avra a Jure ; I will come instantly, and 
direct what he is to do in that case. Dirogli, gli is 
never to double its first letter, as we have observed. 

Some of these pronouns (not those called relatives) 

o3 



298 SYNTAX OF CONJUNCTIVE 

may meet together, and then they are called double ; in 
which case they are subject, with respect to position 
with the verb, to the same rules as the single ones. They 
are expressed as follows : — 

mi ti mi si mi ci mivi 

ti si ti ci 

vi ti vi si vi ci 

ci si gli mi.... gli ti......gli si gli ci gli vi 

B, 2. 7. A me parve .... vedere il padre mio; e da 
quello amove .... mossa, potendo-m'iti celare, mi ti feci 
palese ; I thought I beheld my father : and moved with 
that natural tenderness that I owe to him, I revealed to 
you what I might have kept secret. 

B. Lab. II quale con lenti passi appressando-misi, mi 
reed speranza ; who, approaching me slowly, revived my 
hope. 

B. 3. 3. Le novelle ... non sono altre che di quel... 
vostro amico, di cui io mi vi rammaricai T altr* ieri ; 
it is only that ... friend of yours, of whom I complained 
to you the other day. 

B. 1 . 7. Ne mai neffl ammo tri! entrd questo pensiero, 
che per costui mi ci e entrato ; never was I possessed of 
so strange a fancy as to day, concerning that man. 

B. 4. 5. Se tu ne domanderai pin, noi ti faremo quella 
risposta che ti si conviene ; if you inquire any more 
about him, you shall receive such an answer as you de- 
serve. 

B. 2. 3. Io vi ti porro chetamente una coltricetta, e 
dormi-viti ; I can softly convey a little bed thither, and 
you may rest very comfortably. 

B. 10. 9. Signori) questo che voi ricevete da noi> a 
rispetto di quello che vi si converrebbe, fia povera cortesia ; 
gentlemen, it is poor respect you receive from us, com- 
pared to what you deserve. 

B. 8. 6. Io dird, che vi ci abbiafatta venire per danari ; 
I shall say, that I let you come here for money, 

B. Fiam. Se per piacere a Dio ci si viene ; if people 
come here to please God, 



AND RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 299 

B. % 3. Essa alhra postogli in mano un anello, gli si 
fecesposare; she then put a ring into his hand, and 
made him espouse her. 

B. 2. 7. Ne* nostri hisogni gli ci raccomandiamo ; we 
recommend ourselves to him in our necessity. 

Si as an expletive is put before mi, ti 9 vi 9 ne 9 il, lo, la % 
gli, li, le, making si mi, si ti, si vi 9 si ne 9 si il 9 si lo, si la 9 
si gli, si li 9 si le ; but when it is a particle of the re- 
flective verb, it is better to be placed afterwards, as we 
said above. 

B. 1. 1. Se tujbssi stato un di quegli che il posero in 
croce 9 avendo la contrizione che io ti veggio, si ti per- 
donerebbe ; though you had even a hand in nailing him 
upon the cross, yet you would be forgiven on such a 
repentance as yours. 

B. 7. 9. H mio amove gli significherai, e si il preghe- 
rai da mia parte, che gli piaccia di venire a me ; let him 
know my love for him, and entreat him on my part, that 
he would be pleased to come hither to me. 

B. 6. 4. Qiiella (una gril) mando ad un suo cuoco, e 
si gli mando dicendo, che a cena Varrostisse ; he sent it 
to his cook, with orders to prepare it for supper. 

B. 7. 3. E perciocche tu ci bisognavi per dire certe 
parole, e non ti seppe trovar la fante, si le fece dire at 
compagno suo ; and as we wanted you to say certain 
words, and the maid could not find you, he let his com- 
panion say them. 

Mi 9 ti, gli, le, si 9 ci 9 vi 9 in all their acceptations, 
meeting with the relative ne, are resolved as follows, 
and are subject to the same rules as in their primitive 
state. 



me ne........or men w» mene 

te ne or ten or tene 

glie ne or glien or gliene 

le ne or len or lene 

se ne or sen or sene 

ce ne ,.,.....or cen or cene 

ve ne .. ......or ven or vene 



800 SYNTAX OF CO^tTKCTlVlS 

All the words of the first column are used before 
verbs beginning either with a consonant or vowel ; those 
belonging to the second are used before verbs beginning 
with a consonant, and if verbs begin with a vowel, an 
apostrophe is added to these words, thus i—men*, ten*, 
&c. As to the words of the third column, they may 
be used sometimes before a verb; but when 1 they are 
put after the verb they are to make one word with it, 
and must never be written separately. Ex. 

B. 6. 8. lo me ne sono venuta tosto ; I came back so 
soon. Me ne expletive particles. 

B. 6. 8. Che vuol dir questo die essendo oggi festa, tu 
te ne si cos\ tosto tornata a casa ? As this is a holiday, 
what is the reason you come home so soon ? Te ne ex- 
pletive particles. 

B. 1. 4. Avvisando che questi accorto non se x& fosse, 
fu lieto ; thinking he had not perceived it, he was very 
glad. Se ne. Se the reflective particle of accorgersi 
from which accorto is derived, and ne the relative go- 
verned by accorto. 

B. 8. 7. Elle si partiranno, e voi ve ne potrete seen- 
dere, e tornar-yene a casa ; they will leave you, and you 
may go down and then go home. Ve ne in both cases 
being united with verbs of motion, are expletive par- 
ticles. 

M. Vill. Vedendo Vuomo la semplicita del fanciullo, 
gliene venne pieta ; the man seeing that the boy was 
silly, felt compassion for him. Gliene. Gli a pronoun 
in the dative, and ne a relative in the genitive, both 
cases of the persons ; as if it were to him, viz. to the 
man ; of him, viz. of the boy, came compassion. 

B. 2. 6. Amenduni gli fece pigliare a tre suoi servi- 
dori, e ad un sua castello legati menar-g]iene ; he ordered 
three of his servants to seize them, and carry them 
bound to a castle of his. Gliene. Gli a pronoun rela- 
tive of person in the accusative case, and ne an expletive 
particle. 

B. 8. 8. La donna udendo questo, e dopo molte ricon- 



AND RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 301 

jermazionifatte-\er\e dal Zeppa, disse ; she listened, and 
being persuaded by what Zeppa told her, she said. 
Lene. Le a pronoun in the dative, and ne a relative of 
things in the genitive, as if it were to her, of them. 

Sometimes the conjunctive pronouns mi, ti, si, gli, ci, 
vi, are found with ne, thus, mi ne, ti ne, si ne, &c ; but 
this the student is not to imitate, as faulty. 

Mi, ti, gli, le, si, ci, ne, vi, as dative cases, and in all 
their acceptations, meeting with the relatives il, lo, la, 
gli, li, le, are resolved as follows, and are subject to the 
same rules as in their primitive state. Ex. 

me lo me la me gli, or me li me le 

te lo te la te gli, or te li te le 

glie lo glie la glie li glie le 

se lo se la se gli, or se li se le 

ce lo ce la ce gli, or ce li ce le 

ne lo ne la ne gli, or ne li ...ne le 

ve lo vela ve gli, or ve li ve le 

These pronouns may also be spelt united thus : — 
melo, telo, &c. before a verb ; but after it they are to 
make one word with the verb, without exception. 

The pronouns of the first column only may drop the 

before a verb beginning with a consonant ; but if the 
verb begin with a vowel, an apostrophe is subjoined to 
them, thus :—meF, teT, seT, &c. 

B. 3. 9. Le quali (cose) niuna alira persona conosco 
chefar me le possa avere se non vol ; with regard to 
which (things), I know no person in the world that can 
serve me except yourself. Me le. Me a dative of per- 
son, le a dative of things. 

B. Lab. Mi place con piu ordine di racco?itar-tele ; 

1 like to relate them to thee with more order. Tele. 
Te a dative of the person, and le accusative of the 
things. 

B. 8. 10. E se io avessi saputo dove mandargli, abbi 
per certo che io te gli avrei mandati ; had I known where 
to have found you, I would have sent them to you. Te 



302 SYNTAX OF CONJUNCTIVE 

gli. Te a dative of the person, and gli accusative of 
the things. 

B. Lab. Ella e tale quale . . . io te la designai ; she is 
such as I described her to you. Te la. Te a dative, 
la accusative, both of the person. 

B. 4. I. II padre poca cur a si dava di piu maritarla, 
ne a lei onesta cosa pareva il richieder-nelo ; the father 
took no care to marry her again, and it seemed not 
modest in her to ask it. Ne lo. Ne a genitive of the 
thing, and lo accusative of the person. 

B. 10. 9. E inform ato un de 1 suoi Jamigli di cid die 

far voleva, alia sua donna nel mando a Pavia ; and 

having told one of his servants what he would do, he 

sent him to his lady at Pavia. Nel for ne it. Ne an 

expletive particle, and il accusative of the person. 

Segn. II moribondo glie lo promise e mori; the dying 
man promised him, and then expired. Glie lo. Gli a 
dative of the person, and lo accusative of the thing. 

B. 2. 5. Questa mattina mel fe y sapere una povera 
fimmina ; a poor woman let me know it this morning. 
Mel for mi il. Mi a dative of the person, and il accusa- 
tive of the thing. 

B. 9. 2. Avvenne che ella una notte velfece venire; 
it happened that she let him come there one night. 
Vel for vi il. Vi adverb of place, and il accusative of 
the person. 

Besides the above ways of uniting the pronouns con- 
junctive, relative, reflective, &c. meeting with each other, 
another has been used by good authors both ancient and 
modern, which is, to put the relatives il, lo, la, li, le, 
before the conjunctives mi, ti, si, ci, ne, vi, as follows, 
and then they are subject to the same rules as all the 
others of which we have spoken above. 



il mi 


lo mi 

lo ti 


la mi 


le mi 


il ti 


la ti 

la si 

la ci 

lane .... 


le ti 


il si 

il ci 


lo si 

io ci 


le si ' 

le ci 


il ne 


lo ne 


le ne 


il vi 


Jo vi 


la vi 


le vi 



AND RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 303 

This way is very elegant in a composition, but in a 
familiar conversation it is too pedantic, and conse- 
quently it must be avoided. Ex. 

B. Filoc. Prendi questo anello. II mio padre . . . il 
mi dono ; take this ring — My father gave it me. II mi. 
II accusative, mi dative of dono. 

B. 7. 7. Io giudico che tu ottimamente abbi il mio 
amor guadagnato^ e percio io il ti dono ; I think you 
are well worthy of my love, and therefore you shall 
have it. 77 ti. II accusative, ti dative of dono. 

B. 7. 9. Ma or a cK io m! accorgo che altri comincia 
ad avvedersene, non e piil da celar-ioti ; but now I see 
other people take notice of it, I can conceal it no longer. 
Loti. Lo accusative, ti sl dative of celar. 

B. Fiam. Qual e la cagione della tua pallidezza, dil- 
loci ; what is the cause of your paleness — tell us. Loci. 
Lo an accusative, ci a dative of di\ The I is doubled 
according to the observation in page 297. 

B. 4. 4. E in mar gittandola, dissono ; togli> noi la ti 
diamo ; and throwing her overboard said, hold, we give 
her to thee. La ti. La accusative, ti dative of diamo. 

B. 3. 9. Io ti richteggo che la condizione . . . tu la mi 
osservi ; I conjure you that you abide by the condition 
imposed upon yourself. La mi. La accusative, mi 
dative of osservi. 

B. 7. 9. Usa il benejicio della fortuna^ non la cacciare, 

jfaZ-leti incontro ; make use of fortuned kind offer ; do 

not drive her away, but run to meet her. Le ti. Le a 

dative, ti accusative of fa. The I is doubled according 

to the observation in page 297. 

B. % 9. Messere 9 le cose son mie, e non le vendo, 
ma se elle vi piacciono, io le vi donero volentieri ; Sir, 
those things belong to me, I do not sell them ; but if 
you like to have them, I will give them to you willingly. 
Le vi. Le accusative, vi dative of donero. 

Sometimes three of these particles meet together, when 
they are expressed as follows, arid are subject to the 
same rules as in their first state. 



304 SYNTAX OF CONJUNCTIVE AND RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

mi tene... si me ne si il mi 

mise ne..... si te ne si me lo 

mi ve ne si cene siil ti 

mi gliene si gliene si te lo 

milene,&c si lene, &c si glie lo,&c. 

B. 3. 3. Avendo avutojbrse per male, che io mi ve ne 
sia doluta; perhaps he took it ill that I made my com- 
plaint to you. Mi a reflective particle, ve a conjunctive 
pronoun in the dative, ne a relative pronoun in the genitive. 

B. Lab. Io non so che dir-miteue ; I do not know 
what to say about it. Mitene. Mi an expletive, ti a 
conjunctive pronoun in the dative, ne a relative pro- 
noun in the genitive. 

Borgh. Ma checche avvenire mi se ne debba, non las- 
cerb di far pruova di contentarvi ; but whatever may 
happen to me, I shall do all in my power to please you. 
Mi se ne. Mi a conjunctive pronoun in the dative, si an 
expletive, ne a relative pronoun in the genitive. 

B. 9. 9. La donna rivoltasi con orgoglio disse : Se ti 
piace, si ti piaccia, se non, si tene sta ; the lady replied 
with disdain : If you have a mind to eat, do so ; if not, 
let it alone. Si tene. These three particles may all be 
called expletives. 

N. Ant. 13. Quando farono maturi, si gliene portb 
una soma, ; when they were ripe, he brought him a load 
of them. Si gliene. Si an expletive particle, gli a 
conjunctive pronoun in the dative, ne a relative pronoun 
in the genitive. 

B. 2. 10. E perb voi con la bnona ventura si ve ne 
andate il piu tosto che potete ; and therefore go away as 
soon as you can, and God be with you. Si ve ne. All 
these particles are expletives. 

B. 5. 9. La prima cosa che iofarb domattina, io andrb 
per esso e si il ti recherb ; the first thing I shall do to- 
morrow, shall be to go for it and bring it to thee. Si il 
ti. Si an expletive, il a relative pronoun in the accu- 
sative, ti a conjunctive pronoun in the dative. 

However, this modfe of putting three of these particles 
together is not usually adopted at present; and the 
student will be contented with knowing it without put- 
ting it in use. 



MODES OF ADDRESS IN ITALIAN. 305 



REMARKS ON THE DIFFERENT MODES OF ADDRESS 
IN ITALIAN. 

When Italians address themselves either to a man or 
woman, they use one of the three following persons. 
viz. — the second person singular, the second person 
plural, and the third person singular, according to the 
station or rank in life of those who are addressed. 

The second person singular is used by masters speaking 
to their servants, and by parents to their children ; like- 
wise husbands and wives, and brothers and sisters adopt 
it to each other. It is used also between intimate friends, 
or when people address one another in a passion, and 
lastly, it is introduced in all sorts of poetry. 

The second person plural is used by children speaking 
to their parents; by ladies speaking to gentleman of the 
same station of life as they are themselves, as a privilege 
allowed them, but a gentleman is on no account to address 
himself in this person to a lady, though he may to a 
woman in humble life. It is used likewise in speaking 
to all sorts of trades-people, dealers, &c. 

The third person singular is used by all people speak- 
ing to one another of the same station in life ; by people 
speaking to those who are above them : by servants to 
their masters; and, in short, except when persons in 
humble life, or servants are addressed, it is better to 
speak in this person, as nothing else can prove more 
clearly that he who addresses himself is a well bred, and 
well educated person. 

It is to be observed, that when the third person singular 
is used, the pronoun you is changed into vostra signoria, 
which words are pronounced vossignoria (generally 
spelled V. S.) and serve to address both man and woman, 
and if more persons than one are spoken to, you is 
changed into vostre signorie, (1) or in a more familiar 



(l) Though some grammarians have omitted vostre signorie and put 
le signorie loro instead, we think it is better to imitate P. Bembo, who 



306 MODES OF ADDRESS IN ITALIAN. 

way, into hr signori, always making the verb agree 
with them ; that is to say, the verb is to be in the third 
person singular with vostra signoria, and in the third 
person plural with le vostre signorie, (1) or lor signori. 
The latter, however, is used in speaking to gentlemen 
only. 

Not to repeat too often vossignoria and le vostre sig- 
norie, we make use of the pronoun ella with all its 
inflexions, thus: — 

Nom. you V. S ella (2) 

Gen. of you di V. S di lei 

Dat. to you aV. S a lei, or le 

Ace. you V. S lei, or la 

Abl. fromyou da V. S da lei 

Plural. 

Nom. you le Vostre Signorie, or lor Signori.. elleno (2) 

Gen. of you ....di lor Signori « di loro 

Dat. to you ....a lor Signori a loro 

Ace. you ...lor Signori loro, le 

Abl. from you., da lor Signori .....da loro 

Le instead of a lei, is a conjuctive pronoun ; la instead 
of lei is a relative ; and le instead of loro is likewise a 
relative, all of which are construed according to the 
rules laid down for those pronouns, page 293. 



uses vostre signorie, in addressing those to whom he writes, and le 
signorie loro, in speaking of absent people, as in the following ex- 
amples. Se vostre signorie sono quelle buone e sante, che io ho sem- 
pre creduto che elle siano ; if you are as good and pious as I have 
always thought you to be. Ho veduto nelle vostre lettere il desiderio, 
che mostrato grande v'hanno quegP illustrissimi signori avere, che io 

scriva la istoria nostra .Per che vi priego e stringo a pregar le loro 

signorie che mi lascino ne J miei usati studj ; I have seen in your let- 
ters the great desire which the illustrious gentlemen have testified 

to you for me to write the history of our country Therefore I 

earnestly intreat you will beg their lordships to let me pursue my 
usual studies. In the former example, Bembo addresses two 
friends, and in the latter, we plainly see that he speaks to a friend of 
some absent gentlemen, 

(1) Vostre signorie may be used with or without the article. 

(2) All these pronouns may be spelled with a capital letter. 



MODES OF ADDRESS IK ITALIAN. 307 

In speaking to a person of rank or to a nobleman, 
Vossignoria Illustrissima, and Vostra Eccellenza, written 
V. S. Illma., V. E. are to be used : to a Prince of 
the Blood, Vostra Altezza^ written V. A. : to a King, 
Vostra Maesta, written V. M. : to a Monk, Vostra Pa- 
ternita, V. Pta : to a Priest, Vostra Reverenza, V. R. : 
to a Cardinal, Vostra Eminenza, V. Emza. : to the Pope, 
Vostra Santita, V. Sta, &c. 

In speaking in the third person, the adjective or par- 
ticiple (if there be one), is to be of the feminine gender, 
and this should be the proper mode. But we also find 
the adjective and participle agree with the person ad- 
dressed, that is to say, of the masculine gender, if a man 
is spoken to. 

In speaking in the third person, the possessive pro- 
noun your is changed into suo* sua, suoi, sue, for the 
singular, making it agree with the person or object 
possessed ; and into loro, which is of both genders, for 
the plural. 

Respecting the address in the second person, both 
singular and plural, there is no need of examples ; but 
in the third person some examples are necessary to 
render the explanation of the rules laid down more dis- 
tinct and clear. 

Examples for the Singular. 

How do you do, Sir, or Madam ? Change you, which 
is the nominative, into vossignoria or ella, put the verb 
do in the third person singular, and you will find come 
sta V. S. or ella. 

I thank you, Sir, or Madam. Change you, which is 
accusative, into V. S. or lei, or la, construe the pronouns 
according to the rules of the pronouns, and you will find 
io ringrazio V. 8. or lei, or io la ringrazio. 

Sir, or Madam, I gave you a book. Change you, 
which is a dative, into a V. S. or a lei or le, construe 
the pronouns as above, and you will find io diedi un libro 
a V. S. or a lei 9 or io le diedi un libro, &c. &c. 



308 MODES OF ADDRESS IN ITALIAN. 

Examples for the Plural. 

How do you do, gentlemen or ladies ? Change you, 
which is a nominative, into le V. Signorie or lor signori, 
or elleno, put the verb do in the third person plural, and 
you will find come stanno le V. S. 

Gentlemen, or ladies, I saw you at the Opera. Change 
you, which is an accusative, into le V. Signorie, or loro, 
or le, and you will find to vidi le V. Signorie aW Opera, 
or io le vidi all ''Opera. If you make use of lor Signori, 
le is to be changed into li, thus : — io vidi lor Signori alV 
Opera, or io li vidi alV Opera. 

Examples with the Agreement of the Adjective 
or Participle. 

Have you been in the country, Sir, or Madam ? E K < 
ella stata in campagna ? for both genders, or stato for 
the masculine, and stata for the feminine. Have you 
been into the country, gentlemen and ladies? Sono 
elleno state in campagna ? With lor signori, however, 
the masculine adjective or participle is to be used ; as, 
sono lor signori stati in campagna ? 

Examples with the Possessive Pronoun your. 

Where is your brother, Sir, or Madam ? Change 
your into suo masculine, because Jratello is masculine, 
and you will find dove e il suo Jratello, or il Jratello 
di V. S. 

I saw your sisters, Sir, or Madam. Change your into 
sue feminine, because sorelle is feminine, and you will 
find ho veduto le sue sorelle. 

Have you received your money, gentlemen, or ladies ? 
Change your into loro, and you will find hanno le vos- 
tre signorie ricevuto il loro denaro, &c. 

As the student may think it strange to address a man 
as if he were a woman, absent not present, a few words 
on this subject will not be amiss. 

When the Roman republic fell from its height, and 



, SYNTAX OF POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 809 

small powers began to rise, that simplicity of manners 
which had reigned for a great number of years was 
at an end ; and the purity of the language of the 
Latins degenerated in such a manner as to be scarcely 
called Latin. 

In this state of things the vulgar tongue (for thus 
was called the Italian language, on account of its being 
spoken by the people) began to be used by the best 
writers; and as flattery and ambition reigned among 
those who had invaded Italy, they began by way of 
flattery to address a single person in the second person 
plural ; and though Dante, Boccaccio, and several other 
learned men always used to address people in the second 
singular, yet they had but few imitators. 

Not satisfied with speaking in the second person 
plural, flatterers and servile people had recourse to 
imaginary epithets, and addressed themselves to their 
superiors in the third person singular with vostra sig- 
noria, vostra eccellenza, vostra altezza, &c. In vain 
did Claudio Tolomei, Bernardo Tasso, and several 
others, endeavour to remove these absurd titles, and in- 
troduce again the second person plural: for Ruscelli, 
Corro, and other individuals of lesser note, supported 
by the custom which then reigned even in private con- 
versation, triumphed over all these difficulties. To 
speak in the second person singular was considered as 
an affront, and to do so in the second person plural 
remained among the lower classes of people and intimate 
friends ; and likewise it was used by the nobility in 
speaking to their inferiors. At present, however, V. S. 
is seldom used in speaking, but instead of it we make 
use of ella, di lei, a lei, &c. 



SYNTAX OF POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 

RULE XXXVII. 
A possessive pronoun, standing as an adjective, may 



310 SYNTAX OF POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 

be put either before or after the substantive with which 
it is made to agree, with this condition, that when put 
before, it is to be placed between the article and the 
said substantive. 

B. 5. 4. Per quanto hai caro il mio amore ; as much 
as my affection is prized by thee. 

B. Fiam. E siccome la mia persona . . . cresceva, cost 
le mie bellezze, de' miei mali special cagione, multiplica- 
vano ; and as I grew up, my beauty, the first cause of 
all my misfortunes, improved. 

B. Lett. Tutti naturalmente con fama desideriamo 
di prolungare il nome nostro; all men are naturally 
desirous of rendering their reputation everlasting by 
fame. 

B. Intr. Disse allora Elisa : veramente gli uomini sono 
delle Jemmirie capo, e senza 1' ordine loro, rade volte 
riesce alcuna nostra opera a laudevol fine ; Eliza then 
said : It is true, man is the head of a woman, and without 
his management it seldom happens that any undertaking 
of ours succeeds* 



RULE XXXVIII. 

Possessive pronouns, being copulatives, or otherwise 
standing as adjectives, have no article ; and when they 
are found preceded by one, as in the examples of the 
preceding rule, il mio amore, le mie bellezze, de' miei 
mali, it is to be observed that the said articles, il, le, de* 
do not belong to the possessive pronouns mio, mie, miei, 
but to the substantives amore, bellezze, mali, with which 
they are made to agree. In that case, the substantive 
that has no article is not to take one, when accompanied 
with a possessive pronoun. 

We have already spoken of the substantives that 
have or have not the article, page 237. However, the 
following observations may save the student some trouble. 

When substantives are preceded by indeterminate 
pronouns, such as ogni, qualche, alcuno, molto, and piu 



SYNTAX OP POSSESSIVE PUONOUK'S. 311 

meaning molti; likewise by demonstrative pronouns, 
such as questo, quello, quegli, &c. and numeral nouns, 
such as uho, due, tre ; and likewise substantives governed 
by essere, to be ; sembrare, to appear ; divenire^ to be- 
come, have no article; therefore, possessive pronouns 
accompanied with them are not to have an article. 

B. 4. 1, O molto amato cuore, ogni mio ufficio verso te 
ejbrnito. Oh ! much beloved heart, all my kind offices 
towards thee are at an end. 

B. Int. Gli uomini sono delle femmine capo, e senza 
Vordine loro, rade volte riesce alcuna nostra opera a lau- 
devoljine ; man is the head of a woman, and without 
his management it seldom happens that any undertaking 
of ours succeeds. 

B. &. 1. Per consiglio di qualche suo amico ; by the 
advice of some of his friends. 

B. 4. I. Setu ti contenti di lasciare appresso di me 
questa tua figliuoletta, io la prendero volentieri ; if you 
are pleased to leave this girl with me, I will willingly 
take her. 

B. 5. 9. Monna Giovanna con questo suo figliuolo serC 
andava in contado ; M. Giovanna used to go into the 
country with her son. 

B. 5. 9. Lascio erede un suo figliuolo ; he left an only 
son all his fortune. 

B. 6. 8. Uno che si chiamo Fresco aveva una sua 
nepote ; a certain man, called Fresco, had a niece. 

B. 3. 4. Ma percio die tu se' mio amico; but because 
you are my friend. 

Possessive pronouns preceded by some particular pre- 
positions sometimes take the article, and sometimes 
not ; but as we cannot give certain rules for them, we 
have set down the following expressions, which are 
invariable. 

in vita raia in my life 

in vita tua in thy life 

in vita sua, &c in his life 

in poter mio in my power 

in poter tuo, &c in thy power 



312 SYNTAX OF POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 

in favor mio in my favor 

in presenza mia in my 'presence 

in casa mia.... in my home 

per nostro bene .for our good 

per mio consiglio by my advice 

per amor mio for my sake 

per mia difesa,&c for my defence 

per sua difesa . ...for his defence 

per parte mia, or} /. 

K r . . ' > fromme 

da parte mia $ J 



Example. 

B. 3. 2. Questafatica per mio consiglio ti serberai in 
ultra volta; I advise you not to give yourself this 
trouble at present. 



RULE XXXIX. 

Contrary to the preceding rule, padre, madre, all sub- 
stantives expressive of kindred or relation, such asjiglio, 
sorella, inarito 9 &c. ; all those expressive of rank or 
quality, such as maesta, eccellenza, altezza, &c. pre- 
ceded by a possessive pronoun, lose their respective 
articles. 

Soave. Nov. E chi e vostro padre? And who is 
your father ? 

Soave Nov. Mia madre, un Jratello minore, ed io 9 
siamo restati neW estrema miseria ; my mother, a 
younger brother, and myself, have been left in great 
distress. 

Giral. Lett. Egli adunque inteso il nobile atto di 
Filippo usato a salute di suo marito; he then hav- 
ing heard of the noble action of Philip in favour of 
her husband. 

Caro. Lett. Venne sua Maesta accompagnata dal 
Duca $ Orieano ; his Majesty was accompanied by the 
Duke of Orleans. 



SYNTAX OF POSSESSIVE PliONOUNS. 318 

Caro Lett. E sua Eccellenza le bacio la mano ; and 
his Excellency kissed her hand. 

If the possessive pronoun follows one of the above 
substantives, or if these substantives are plural, the 
article is not dropped. 

Giral. Let. Mi ricordo aver udito dire al padre mio ; 
I recollect I heard my father say. 

Melas. Let. Supplico percio TEccellenza Vostra a de- 
gnarsi di ordinare ; I entreat your Excellency to deign to 
order. 

Metas. Let. Finche io possafavlo in persona, soffra la 
Maesta Vostra ; as long as I can do it myself, allow 
me, Sire. 

Bembo* Let. A die vi rispondo, prima die io ringrazio 
le loro Signorie ; to which I answer, before I thank your 
lordships. 

When substantives expressive of kindred and relation- 
ship are preceded by a possessive pronoun, the article may 
be dropped at pleasure. Here are some examples with 
the article, as we have already given some without it. 

B. 5. 9- Acciocdie io possa dire tfaver riienuto in 
vita il mio figliuolo ; in order that I may say I have pre- 
served the life of my son. 

Giral. Let. Ho deliberate di voter prima morire, die 
intenda giammai die il mio marito in tal modo sia morto ; 
I have resolved rather to die, than to hear that my hus- 
band should die in this manner. 

Modern grammarians have set down the above rule 
concerning padre and madre as an incontestable truth, 
any deviation from which they would condemn as a 
crime; but why should they drop the article before 
these two words only, and not before the other substan- 
tives expressive of kindred ? With respect to eccellenza, 
maesta, &c. I have not found any examples contrary to 
the above rule ; and I think it is because the article 
placed before the possessive pronoun, when accompanied 
with one of those words, does not sound well : but with 
padre and madre it makes no difference in the sound, 

p 



314 SYNTAX OF POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 

and for this reason I suppose many writers of note have 
used them when preceded with a pronoun, with and 
without the definite article, which I think may be imi- 
tated without any imputation of impropriety. 

B. 4. 1. II mio padre quando a lid in isposa mi con- 
ginnse, il mi dono ; my father gave it to me when he 
married me to him. 

Firen. Let. Arete Cirenaica, die dopo la morte del suo 
padre, resse la scuola, ec. ; Arete of Cyrene, after her 
father's death, ruled the school, &c. 

B. 3. 5. E come die rade volte la sua madre vedesse ; 
and though he seldom saw his mother. 



RULE XL. 

Possessive pronouns are always to be repeated before 
substantives of different gender and number. 

B. 4. 1. Delle virtu e del valor e di Guiscardo, io nan 
credetti al giudicio d? alcuna altra persona, che a quello 
delle tue parole, e de" miei occhj ; with regard to Guis- 
carcfs worth and valour, I did not give faith to what 
people said of him, but to yourself and my own 
eyes. 

B. 4. 1. Riguarda tra tutti i tuoi nobili uomim, ed 
esamina la lor virtu, i lor costumi, e le loro maniere ; 
look on your noblemen, and examine their merits, cus- 
toms and manners. 

If, however, two substantives are of the same gender 
and number, the possessive pronouns that accompany 
them, may be put only once after the said substan- 
tives. 

B. 3. 7. Appresso costoro le sirocchie, e le mogli loro 
...ven?iero; after these came their sisters and their 
wives. Instead of le loro sirocchie e le loro mogli ; be- 
cause both sirocchie and mogli are of the same gender 
and number. In like manner we may say, ilfratelh e 
il padre mlo 9 my brother and my father ; le scarpe e 



SYNTAX OF POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 315 

le vesti nostre, our shoes and clothes, &c. making the 
pronoun possessive agree with the substantive next to it, 
and not with both. 



RULE XLT. 

Possessive pronouns being absolute have different sig- 
nifications, and according to these significations, or to 
the verbs by which they are governed, they either take 
the article or omit it. 

1. Accompanied with the verb esser e, divenire, and 
signifying possession, they are used without the article. 

B. 8. 4 Son disposta, posciache vipiaccio, a voler esser 
vostra ; since you like me, I am willing to be your's, 
(that is, to belong to you as a wife). 

B. 3. 7. Come egli divenne vostro, cost diveniste vol 
sua ; you were agreeable to each other, and acquaintance 
increased love. 

2. Signifying wealth, riches, money, they take no 
article, if accompanied with esser e and divenire. 

B. 3. 5. Omai e ben mio il pallqfreno, die fa tuo ; 
now the horse, which was your^s, is mine. 

But if accompanied with any other verb, the definite 
article is prefixed to them. 

B. 1. 1. Non so cui to mi possa lasciare a riscuotere 
il mio da loro piu convenevole di te ; I do not know any 
one more fit than you whom I can employ to receive my 
money from them. 

B. 1.7. Or mangi del suo, se egli ne ha, che del 
nostro non manger a egli oggi ; now let him eat of his 
own if he has it, for he shall taste none of our's 
to-day. 

3. Absolute possessive pronouns are sometimes used 
in the plural for relations, friends, servants, countrymen, 
soldiers, &c. ; and then they take the article masculine 
plural, i or li, which is to be dropped when they are 
accompanied with essere. 

p 2 



816 SYNTAX OF POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 

B. Filoc. Io rivedro li miei, li quali dierono per me 
pietose lagrime, credendo die iofossi morta ; I shall see 
again my own (relations) who kindly shed tears for me, 
supposing I was no more. 

B. 10. 4. Questa donna Azl suoi poco avuig, cava.., da 
mefu ricolta; that woman, who was despised by her 
own (friends), I welcomed to my house. 

B. In trod. / nostri o morendo o la morte fuggendo, 
quasi non Jbssimo loro, sole in tanta afflizione nhanno 
lasciate ; our husbands or relations having either died or 
avoided death, have left us alone in so much affliction as 
if we, in no way, belonged to them. 

B. Filoc. Sempre saremo tuoi ; we are for ever your 
friends. 



RULE XLII. 

English possessive pronouns are changed into conjunc- 
tives in Italian whenever they are accompanied with a 
substantive expressive of the limbs of the body, or de- 
noting a part of one^s dress, putting the article before 
the said substantive. 

B. 9. 6. Egli e gran peccato ehe voi non vi fiaccate 
il collo ; it is a great pity you do not break your 
neck. Vi a conjunctive pronoun for vostro, instead of 
il vostro collo. 

B. 9. 1. O se essi mi cacciasser gli occhj, o mi tra- 
essero i denti, o mozzasser-mi le mani . . . a die save'' 
io ? But suppose they tear out my eyes, draw out my 
teeth, or lop off my hands . . . how can I bear that ? 
Mi 9 a conjunctive pronoun. 

Lod. Nov. Guarda se altri lo scorge, ed alfine si 
risolve di levar-si le scarpe ; he looked around lest he 
should be seen, and at last he resolved to take off his 
shoes. Si le scarpe instead of le sue scarpe. Si, the 
conjunctive pronoun. 

Fior. Nov. E cosi si levo Vanello di dito, e diello al 
gludice; and thus he took off the ring from his finger, 



SYxSTAX OF POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 317 

and gave it to the judge. Si di dito, instead of del suo 
dito. Si, the conjunctive pronoun. 

It is to be observed that the possessive pronouns his, 
her, their, are changed into the reciprocal pronoun si, as 
in the above examples, si levo di dito, levarsi le scarpe, 
whenever people in the third person, both singular and 
plural, act upon themselves ; but if they act upon others, 
the possessive, his, is changed into gli, her into le, and 
their, loro ; as, he takes off his (own) shoes, ei si toglie 
le scarpe ; he takes off his (another man's) shoes, ei gli 
toglie le scarpe. And again : — she tore her (own) hair, 
ella si strappo i capelli ; of another woman, ella le strappo 
i capelli; they scratched their own faces, essi si grqf- 
fiarono il viso ; of other persons, graffiarono loro il 
viso. 

B. 9. 8. E stracciaia-g\i la cufi\a...diceva ; and tearing 
his (another man's) head dress, he said. 

B. 9- 8. E cost dicendo, con le pugna . . . tutto :1 viso 
gli ruppe ; and thus saying, he disfigured bis (another 
man's) face with blows. 

The English possessive pronouns, however, accom- 
panied with a substantive, expressive of the parts of the 
person, or denoting a part of one's dress, are to be left 
out, whenever they relate to the personal pronoun which 
is the subject of the phrase in question. 

B. 4. 6. Le mi pareva nella gola aver messo un collar 
d'oro, e quella con una catena cPoro tener colle mani ; I 
thought I had put a collar of gold around its neck, which 
I held by a golden chain in my hand. Colle mani, in- 
stead of colle mie mani. 

B. 4. 6. Di die io sentiva si fatto dolore che...desto 
colla mano suhitamente cor si a cercarmi il lato ; which 
gave me such pain, that I instantly awoke, and laid my 
hand on my side, to feel if any thing was amiss. Colla 
mano, instead of colla mia mano. 

In the same manner we express — my head, my teeth, 



318 SYNTAX OF POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 

i 

my arm 9 &c. ache ; ho male alia testa, ai denti, al bracelet. 
Sic, and not alia mia testa, ai mieidenti, almio br accio. 
And again, I stretched my arms ; io stesi le braccia, and 
not le mie braccia, &c. I have lost my shoes ; ho per- 
duto le scarpe. 

His and her are expressed by di lui and di lei, if 
sua, sua, suoi, site, would cause ambiguity ; which hap- 
pens when two persons of different genders are spoken 
of. In that case, di lui and di lei may be placed either 
between the article and the substantive, or after the said 
substantive. 

Gold. Ho veduto il padre e lajiglia. La di lei serva, 
&c. ; I saw the father and the daughter. Her maid, &c. 
If it were la sua serva, nobody could know whether it 
was his or her maid. 

Gold. Dubito die qualche dispiacere abbiate ricevuto 
dal di lei padre ; I am afraid that you have received 
some offence from her father. If it were dal suo padre, 
we could not know whether it was a man or woman 
spoken of. 

The possessive pronoun its, as it always belongs to 
inanimate objects, may be expressed either by suo, sua, 
suoi, sue, as if it were his or hers, or by ne. In the 
latter case, however, ne is to be accompanied with the 
verb that governs it. 

Buom. Molte cominciarono con grande studio a const- 
derare le sue leggi, a imparare le sue resole; many 
people began to ponder on its (the language^) laws, and 
learn its rules. 

Buom. Gli uoniini . . .si rirnessero di nuovo a scriverla 
con tanta accuratezza, che e la scriltura > e lafavella, ne 
e migliorata moltissimo ; men . . . began again to write it 
with such accuracy, that its writing as well as its speaking 
are very much improved. 

In these examples Buommattei might indifferently 
have said, a considerarne le leggi*, a impararne le regole, 
and likewise che la sua scrittura e migliorata, &c. 



SYNTAX OF DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 319 

Its may also be expressed by di esso, or di essa y and 
we may say, a consider ar le leggi di essa. 

Their, loro, being a relative of inanimate objects, may 
likewise be expressed by ne, or di essi, di esse. 

3. It is to be observed that its and their, as 
referring to inanimate objects, are to be always expressed 
by suo, suoi, &c. and loro and esso, when they are go- 
verned by a preposition : and never by tie, as, with its 
power, col suo pot ere, or col potere di esso, &c. 

Numeral nouns, such as one, two, three, or these 
words, any, some, several, many, preceding the genitive 
of a possessive pronoun with its substantive, such as 
one of my friends, several of his acquaintances, &c. are 
turned thus: one my friend, several his acquaintances; 
but if we wish to express a particular person among so 
many, the genitive is to be used as in English. 

B. 3. 1. Advenne . . . die una lor compagna ...di questo 
fatto avvedhtasi, a due altre il mostro ; it happened that 
one of their companions came to the knowledge of it, 
and told it to two other nuns. 

B. 3. 3. Senza dolertene ad alcun tuo parente ; with- 
out speaking of it to any of your relations. 

B. 10. 9. Ed informato un de 'suoi famigli di do che 
far voleva . . . nel mando a Pavia ; and having told one 
of his servants of what he was going to do . . . he sent 
him to Pavia. 



syntax of questi, costui, costei, costoro, quegli, colui, 
colei, coloro. 

DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS, USED AS SUBSTANTIVES. 

All these pronouns, taken as substantives, are used 
in speaking of persons. We have already given some 
explanations concerning their articles, and the use of 
them in general, but as there is something more to say 
about them, we will lay down some rules concerning 
each of them in particular. 



320 SYNTAX OF DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 

RULE XLIII. 

Questi and quegli, though plurals of questo and quello, 
are also used in the nominative singular, in speaking of 
persons only, near at hand for questi, and at a distance for 
quegli. 

B. 10. 9. Questi e il mio signore ! questi e veramente 
M. Torello ; this is my lord ! this is truly Mr. Torello. 

B. Filoc. Quegli e libero da paura^.che abita le solita- 
rie ville ; he is free from fear... who lives in the country. 

The oblique cases of questi, are the same as those of 
questo and costui, and those of quegli are the same as 
those of quello and colui ; but we think that in speaking 
of persons, the oblique cases of costui and colui, are 
preferable to those of questo and quello. 

Que'' abridged*, and quel syncopated, of quegli, and 
also quelli, are used instead of quegli, in the nominative 
singular, as we said above. 

N. Ant. 36. La femmina domando, che hai? Que* 
rispose, io son caduto in una fossa; the woman said, 
what is the matter with you ? he answered, I have fallen 
into a ditch. 

N. Ant. 87. Quelli, che ti insegno cotesta novella, non 
la finsegno tutta ; he who told you this news did not 
tell it all. 

We think quegli is preferable to all of them. 

Observe that questi, quegli, que\ and quei, may as 
well be used as substantives in the nominative plural, 
when we speak of persons. 

B. 4. Proem. Quegli, cite queste cose cost non essere 
state dicono ; those who say that such circumstances were 
not as I represent them. « 

N. Ant. 8. Que' dissero : niostraci, che ti taccice ? they 
said, shew us what prevents you from speaking. 

B. 10. 6. Sar anno for se di quei, che diranno; perhaps 
there may be some who will say. 



SYNTAX OF DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 321 



RULE XLIV. 

Costui masculine, cosfei feminine, and costoro of both 
genders, plural for both, are used in speaking of persons 
near at hand ; and colui masculine, colei feminine, and 
coloro of both genders, plural for both, are used in 
speaking of persons at a distance from the speaker, 
throughout all their cases. 

B. 7. 6. Ma costui con ambasciate sollecitandola, e 
non valendogli, la mando minacciandola ; but he ceased 
not to solicit her with messages, and as it was to no 
purpose, he threatened her. 

B. 1. 1. Chejuremnoi di costui? what shall we do 
with him ? 

B. 7. 6. Essendo costei bella donna ; as she was a 
very handsome woman. 

B. 3. 3. Seco delihero di porre ogni sollicitudine in 
jpiacere a costei ; he resolved to do all he could to please 
her. 

B. 1. 1. Ser Ciappelletto...ud\ cio die costoro di hit 
dicevano ; Mr. Ciappelletto heard all that they (men) 
said of him. 

B. Amet. grazioso Apollo, deh ferma un poco il 
guardo a rimirar costoro ; O, Apollo, stop a little, and 
bestow a gracious look on them (women). 

B. 10. 8. lo son veramente colui, die quelV uomo 
uccisi ; I am truly the person who killed that man, 

B. 1. 10. E colei, la qtial si vede in dosso li panni con 
piitfregi; and she who sees herself better dressed than 
another. 

B. 9. Proem. U amorose fiamme . . . coloro il sanno die 
V hanno provate ; the fire of love . . . those who have felt 
its power know what it is. 

remarks on questi, guegli) costui, &c. 

1. All these words have also been used by good writers 
in prose as well as in poetry, in speaking of deities per- 

pS 



322 SYNTAX OF DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 

sonified, animals, and also of things. The following are 
examples. 

B. 4. 1. DdW una parte mi trae V amove, d y altra mi 
trae B randissimo sdegno. Quegti vuole die io ti perdoni, 
e questi vuole die contro a mia natura in te incrudelisca ; 
on one side I am urged by love, on the other by just 
resentment. The former pleads strongly in your behalf, 
the latter would excite me to do an act of cruelty con- 
tray to my nature. 

B. Fiam. Niuna deita e in cielo da costui (arrwre) nori 
ferita, se non Diana ; there is no deity in heaven, that 
has not been wounded by him, except Diana. 

B. Filoc. A seguitar costui (unpappagaUo) si dispose ; 
he resolved to pursue it. 

B. Filoc. La virtu di costui (tin anello) credo il mh 
periditante legno ajutasse ; the power of this ring, I 
believe, saved my ship in danger. 

B. 10. 8. Lacupidigia de 1 mortali ... ha costei (V ami- 
cizia) fuor degli estremi termini della terra in esilm 
perpetuo relegata; the avidity of man has for ever 
banished her from this world. 

It seems, however, that Boccaccio and Dante are the 
only authors who have made use of them in that case ; 
we therefore advise the student to use questo, questa? 
qiiello, quetta, and their oblique cases, in speaking of 
things. 

2. Costui, costei, costoro, colui,colei, coforo, governed by a 
substantive, may elegantly be used in the genitive case, 
without the mark of a genitive, and then they are to be 
placed between the article and the substantive by which 
they are governed. 

Vill. Al costui tempo, Leone Qiiartofece fa/re le mura 
delta citta Leonina ; in the time of this man, Leo IV. 
had the walls of the city called after him, built. That 
is, al tempo di costui. 

B. 4. 3. Della qua! cosa avvedutosi Restagnone, penso 
di potersi ne* suoi difetti adagiare per lo costoro amore ; 
Restagnone being apprised of this, thought to make up 



SYNTAX OF DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 323 

for his want of wealth, by their love. That is, per lo 
amove di cost or o. 

B. 2. 7. Ella speranza prendendo di dcver potere ancora 
nello state real ritornare, per lo colui consiglio, si fece 
chiamar Antigono ; and having now great hopes of re- 
gaining her former dignity by his advice, she sent for 
Antigonus. That is per lo consiglio di colui. 

B. Fiam. Con voce tacita pregai per li coloro beni 
umilmente gli dm; and I silently offered humble prayers 
to the gods for their prosperity. That is, per li beni di 
coloro. 



RULE XLV. 

SYNTAX OF DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS USED AS 
ADJECTIVES. 

Questo, used in speaking of objects near at hand ; 
quello, of objects distant from the speaker and the person 
addressed ; cotesto, of objects near the person addressed, 
and all their oblique cases, as declined page 99, like 
adjectives, are to agree both in gender and number, with 
their substantives, either of persons or things, without 
exception. 

B. 10. 7. Ella a niuri altra cosa poteva pens-are, se 
nan a questo ... amore; she had no other thought, but 
of her love. Questo is masculine, because amore is of 
the masculine gender. 

Bemb. E questa cosa e quel? altra mirando ; and 
sometimes looking at one thing and sometimes at another. 
Questa and quella, both feminine, because cosa is of 
the feminine gender. 

B. 1.2. Ele vitifacevano gran vista di dovere quello 
anno assai uve fare ; and the vines seemed as if they 
would produce an abundance of fruit that year. Quello, 
masculine, because anno is of the masculine gender. 

B. Introd. Con suoni, e con quelli piaceri che aver 
potevano, si dimoravano ; and they passed their time in 



324 SYNTAX OF DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 

singing, and taking those pleasures they could. Quelli 
masculine plural, because piaceri is masculine and 
plural. 

B. 8. 5. Messere, io vi priego per dio,che innanzi die 
cotesto ladroncello, die v* £ cos\ df allato^ vada altrove, ec; 
for heaven's sake, Sir, before that fellow, who is near you, 
goes away, &c. Cotesto instead of quello, because ladron- 
cello is near the addressed person. 

B. 4. 1. Al quale la donna disse : Tancredi, serba 
coteste lagrime a meno desiderata fortuna ; to whom the 
lady said : Tancredi, save those tears against worse for- 
tune than this. Coteste instead of quesie or quelle, be- 
cause lagrime belongs to the person addressed. 

remarks on questo, quello, cotesto, cid. 

1. These words, and all their oblique cases, are used 
as neuter substantives. 

B. 7. 5. Messer, cotesto nonfate voi ; Sir, you do not 
do that. 

B. 1. 1. E se questo avviene, ilpopolo di questa terra 
veggendo cio si levera a romore ; and should this happen, 
the people of this country, on seeing that, would be apt 
to raise a mutiny. 

2. Questa, a demonstrative pronoun of the feminine 
gender, preceding mane, mattina, sera, notte, substan- 
tives of the feminine gender, is changed into sta, and 
joins with them, making stamane, stamattina, stasera, 
stanotte ; which, in familiar conversation, are preferable 
to questa mane, questa mattina, questa sera, questa 
notte. 

B. 5. 9. Io intendo con questa mia compagna insieme^ 
desinar teco dimesticamente stamane ; what I mean is, 
that I have brought a companion to take a neighbourly 
dinner with you to-day. Stamane means this morning, 
but we translated it to-day, according to the English 
idiom. 

B. 9. 9. Di questo di stamattina sai'd io tenuto a voi ; 
I shall be obliged to you for that of this morning. 



SYNTAX OF DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 325 

R. 6. 4. Ubbriaco jastidioso, tu non c* enter rai sta- 
notte ; drunken rascal, you shall not come in to-night. 

B. 7. 7. Egli ci e stasera venuto uno del suoi frateUi ; 
one of his brothers is come here this evening. 

3. Quello, accompanied with a noun of quality, such 
as giovane, uomo, donna, Janciullo, is sometimes used, 
instead of the proper name, in addressing persons. 

Firenz. Lucid. Avvertisci, quel giovane, die tu f in- 
ganni ; take care, young man, for you deceive yourself. 

Firenz. Vol siete molto altiera, quella giovane; you 
are very proud, young woman. 

Firenz. Quell" uomo dabbene, die cosa e stata ? what is 
the matter, good man ? 

This way of addressing people, is only used by supe- 
riors in addressing themselves to inferiors. 

4. Questo and quello only (not questa and quella, nor 
their oblique cases) preceded by the preposition a, thus 
a questo, a quello, and governed by a verb of motion, 
such as venire, recare, condurre, &c. contain some noun 
in themselves, such as, state, condition, distress, end ; 
thus : to sudi a state, to such a deplorable situation, &c. 

B. 3. 7. Li quali forse a questo condotto nt lianno ; 
which (sins) have perhaps brought me to such a state. 

B. Fiam. Ecco die tu rri hai offesa, ed a quel condotta, 
die io ricca e nobile, e potente, sono la piu misera parte 
della mia terra; you have now offended me, and brought 
such distress on me, that from a rich, noble, and power- 
ful person, I have now become the most wretched in my 
country. 

B. 5. 6. Domandollo allora V ammiraglioy die cosa 
a quello V avesse recato ; the admiral then inquired 
what it was that had brought him to so deplorable a 
condition ? 

In regard to the last remark respecting a questo and 
a quello, we must inform the student, that it belongs to 
the figurative construction, and that he should be con- 
tented with the knowledge of it only, until he has perused 
the rules of the said figurative construction. 



326 SYNTAX OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

5. Questo and questa, preceded by in, thus : in questo, 
m questa, stand as adverbs, and contain in themselves 
some nouns, such as moment, time, &c. 

B. 8. 7. In questo la f ante di lei sopravvenne ; at 
that moment her maid came. In questo, for in questo 
momento. 

B. 3. 8. Ed in questa s*' accorse V abate, Ferondo avere 
una bellissim,a donna per moglie ; in the mean time the 
abbot found that Ferondo had a handsome wife. In 
questa for in questo tempo. 



RULE XLVI. 

SYNTAX OF THE RELATIVE PRONOUNS che, quale, ckL 

Che is used only in the nominative and accusative, 
and its oblique cases are di cui, a cui, da cui ; all of 
which may relate to persons or things of both genders 
and numbers. 

B. Lab. Iddio, che solo i cuori degli uomini vede ; God, 
who can read the hearts of men. Che, nominative sin- 
gular of vede, is of the masculine gender, because it refers 
to Iddio. 

B. 6. 7. La donna, che di gran cuore era, siccome 
generalmente esser sogliono quelle, che innamorate sono, 
da dovero dispose di comparire ; the lady who was of an 
undaunted spirit, like those who are in love, resolved to 
make her appearance. The first che is the nominative 
singular of era, of the feminine gender, because it refers 
to donna; and the second che is the nominative plural 
of sogliono, of the feminine gender, because it relates to 
quelle donne. 

B. 10. 9. Io sono deW andar certo, e del tornare per 
mille casi, che possono avvenire niuna certezza ho ; my 
going away is certain, but my return, by reason of a 
thousand accidents which may happen, is uncertain. 
Che is the nominative plural of possono, and of the mas- 



SYNTAX OF RELATIVE PROXOUMS. 327 

culine gender, as it refers to cad, a substantive masculine 
plural. 

B. 3. 5. Ma hen si guardasse, che a niuna cosa che 
egli dicesse, rispondesse ne poco, ne molto ; but she 
should beware of giving an answer to any thing he said. 
Che accusative feminine singular, governed by dicesse, 
relates to cosa a substantive feminine singlar. 

B. % 7. A Baffa e pervenuta la bella giovane, di cui e 
statafama che annegata era ; a young lady is just come 
to Baffa, who was generally thought to have been 
drowned. Di cui genitive singular of the feminine 
gender. 

B. 5. 7. Io miser o sard colni^ a cui del tuo peccato e 
del mio converra port are la pena ; I shall be forced to 
bear the punishment of both of us. A cui a dative sin- 
gular, is governed by converra. 

B. 8. 7. E veggendo colei aver rotta la coscia da cui 
ella sperava essere ajutata, ricomincio il pianto ; and on 
seeing that she (her maid), from whom she expected 
succour, had broken her thigh, she began to lament 
afresh. Da cui ablative singular of the feminine gen- 
der. 

B. 5. 3. Poscia che a luiparve esser fuor delle mani di 
color o da cui quegli erano stati assalili, e non ritrovando 
la giovane, comincio a piangere ; and when he thought 
himself out of the reach of those by whom they had 
been attacked, and not being able to find the young lady, 
he was distracted. Da cui ablative plural of the mas- 
culine gender. 

Instead of che 9 accusative, cui 9 relating to substantives 
of both genders and numbers, may be used at plea- 
sure. 

B. 2. 7. E sentendo essa che in Jerusalem andavano a 
visitare il sepolcro, dove colui cui tengono per Dio, fu 
sepellitO) a loro mi raccomando ; and on hearing they 
were going to visit the holy sepulchre at Jerusalem, 
where he, whom they believed to be God, was buried, 



328 SYNTAX OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

she recommended me to them. Cui an accusative mascu- 
line singular, is governed by tengono. 

Instead of di cui, some eminent prose writers have 
used di che, but we modern writers should avoid such 
liberties ; for were we to be so bold, we should be taxed 
with ignorance of the principles of grammar. 



RULE XLVII. 

Quale, a relative pronoun, referring to persons or 
things, is declined with the article il or la, as we said 
page 1G3, and is made to agree with its antecedent in 
gender and number. A few examples will be suffi- 
cient. 

B. 4. 2. Usano i volgari un proverbio... il quale ampia 
materia... mi presia a favellare ; men use a proverb... 
which affords ample matter for discourse. II quale 
masculine singular, relates to proverbio a substantive 
masculine. 

B. Introd. E andavano cercando...le loro dcnne, le 
quali erano tra le predette sette ; and they were in pur- 
suit of their females, who were three of the seven ladies. 
Le quali feminine plural, relates to donne. 

B. Introd. De** quali uno era chiamato Pamjilo ; one 
of whom was named Pamphilus. De* quali a genitive 
plural of the masculine gender. 

B. Introd. Una montagna aspra ed erta, presso alia 
quale un bellissimo piano e dilettevole era riposlo; a 
steep and rugged mountain, near which was seen a fine 
and delightful plain. Alia quale a dative singular of 
the feminine gender. 

It is to be observed that the above relatives eke and 
quale, with their oblique cases, may be indifferently used 
one for the other : thus, it is as well to say, il padre il 
quale, or il padre che, the father who ; la madre la quale, 
or la madre che, the mother who ; ifigli di cui, or d£ 



SYNTAX OF RELATIVE PROXOUNS. 329 

quali, the sons of whom ; lejiglie di cut, or de* quali, the 
girls of whom, &c. &c. In this case the student is at 
perfect liberty to use one for the other without appre- 
hension. 



RULE XLVIII. 

When in a phrase there happen to be two or more 
nouns of different genders, the relative quale, is made to 
agree with the nearest substantive. 

o 

B. 5. 6. La virtu e Fonore del quale e dotata ; the 
virtue and honour with which she is endowed. Del quale 
agrees with onore. 

B. 9. 1. Tu sai la nqja, e Tangoscia, la quale io tutto 
il d/i ricevo daW ambasciate di questi due Fiorentini ; you 
are acquainted with the trouble and grief which the 
messages of these two Florentines cause me. La quale 
is made to agree with angoscia. 

N. Macch. Oltra di qaesto fece fare altari e cappelle 
splendidissime, i quali templi e cappelle ...riempie di para- 
menti ; besides that (the building of temples), he caused 
very splendid altars and chapels to be built, which tem- 
ples and chapels ... he filled with ornaments. 

In this case, however, I think it is better to use che 
and its oblique cases di cui, a cui, da cui, to avoid am- 
biguity, and to render the sentences in question more 
intelligible, as in the following sentence. 

B. 3. 5. Dio vi dea queUa allegrezza e quel bene che 
voi desiderate il migliore ; I wish you that happiness 
and contentment you desire most. 

Sometimes, however, the relative quale is expressed 
in both genders, by which the writer may fix the atten- 
tion of the reader on both the preceding nouns to which 
quale relates. 

Infarinat. Forse per lo strumento, o materia estrinseca, 
col quale, ovver nella quale si faccia Timitazione ; perhaps 



330 SYNTAX OF RELATIVE THONOUNS. 

on account of the instrument or extrinsic matter by 
which, or in which, the imitation is made. 

This latter way, though elegant, is not much in use, 
and we have but very seldom found it in Boccaccio. 

We have said in the beginning of the preceding rule, 
that quale is to agree with the antecedent in gender and 
number, now we say that if persona, bestia, or any other 
noun of the feminine gender, applied to man, is the 
antecedent, quale is to be of the masculine gender. 

B. 8. 10. Egli ci e alcuna persona, il quale Valtrojeri 
me serv\ cli cinquecento Jiorini ; there is a person that 
lent me five hundred florins the other day. 

Nov. Ant. Io sono acconcio di niostrare a quella bestia 
(speaking of a man), lo quale si mostra si orgoglioso ; 
I like to shew that stupid ass, who is so proud. 

But as this is unpleasant to the ear, we advise the 
student to make use of che instead. 



RULE XLIX. 

Chi, as we have said page 1 04, cannot properly be 
called a relative, but is a mixture of both relative and 
antecedent, signifying he who, she who, those who, any 
body who, and in a doubt, merely who. 

B. 2. 1 . Spesse volte avvenne che chi altrui s^ e di beffare 
ingegnato, se con le bejfe s^e solo ritrovato ; it often hap- 
pens, that he who endeavours to ridicule other people, 
becomes himself a jest. Chi for colui il quale. 

B. 3. 5. Io reputo granjbllia quella, di chi si inetie 
senza bisogno a tentar le Jbrze delV altrui ingegno ; 
I hold that person a great fool who puts another man's 
wit to the test without any occasion for it. Di chi for 
di colui il quale. 

B. 2. 5. In presenza di chi andava e di chi veniva 
trasse faori questa suaborsa; he pulled out his purse 
in the presence of all the people who were going and 
coming. Di chi for di color o i quali or le quail. 



SYNTAX OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 331 

B. 1. 2. Non credi tu trovar qui chi il battesimo ti 
dea? Do you think to find nobody here that can bap- 
tize you ? Chi for alcana il quale, which has been 
translated nobody on account of the negative non which 
precedes the verb credi. 

B. 2. 2. La donna . . . disse : va su, e guardafuori del 
muro appie di quest uscio chi jpV, e chi egli e; the 
lady said : Go up stairs, and look over the wall at 
the door threshold, and inquire who is there, and what 
he is. 

Chi, as we have seen in the above examples, require? 
the verb, of which it is the subject, to be singular, noi 
plural, as it is found in some authors, except in phrase* 
implying doubt, where chi is the nominative of the vert 
essere only, and not of any other verb. 

B. 10. 6. II re rivolto a Messer Neri il domando, chi 
Jbssero le due damigelle ; the king, addressing himself 
to Mr. Neri, asked who the two young ladies were. 

In like manner we may say, Non so chi sieno cosioro, 
I know not who they are ; Non sapevo chi Jbssero, I 
knew not who they were. 

Besides the above relatives, che, quale, chi, which are 
used as has been shewn for persons or things, the Italian 
language possesses four adverbs that are used as such in 
speaking of things only, such as donde, dove, onde, 
ore. These four words, however, have no article, may 
relate to substantives of both genders and numbers, 
and are generally found used for the oblique cases of 
the relatives. 

B. 3. 4. Si conviene avere nellu tua propria casa alcun 
luogo, donde tu possa la notte vedere il cielo; you must 
have some place in your house, whence you may look 
towards heaven all night long. That is alcun luogo dai 
quale. 

B. 3. 7. A mepiace nella nostra citta ritornare, donde 
alle due passate piacque dipartirsi ; I choose to return 
to our own city, from which the two ladies (who spoke 
last) departed. That is, nella nostra citta dalla quale. 



832 SYNTAX OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

B. Filoc. E seguendo il celestial cavalier o pervennero 
al luogo dove le jiamme erano accese ; and following the 
heavenly knight, they came to a place, where the fire was 
kindled. That is, al luogo nel quale. 

B. 2. % Pei % quello usciuolo, onde era entrato, il 
misefuori ; she let him out at the same door at which he 
entered. That is, per quello usciuolo per il quale. 

Cres. V erba, ove sard la hrina ; the grass, on which 
dew is fallen. That is, V erba sopra cui or la quale. 

B. Fiam. Oime quanto inganno sotto se quella pietd 
oiascondeva, la quale pariitasi dal cuore 9 ove mai piil non 
ritorno, ec. ; Alas ! how false was that compassion, 
which, having been once banished from your heart, to 
which it has never returned, &c. That is, dal cuore al 
quale. 

These four words, used for the oblique cases of cite 
and quale, render the composition both elegant and 
graceful ; yet we must advise the student not to use 
them on all occasions, but only when he wishes to avoid 
the repetition of the relatives, or when they are the cases 
of verbs of motion, or when he can apply them with dis- 
cernment, which is attained by reading the best authors. 

These four words are generally adverbs, of the con- 
struction of which we shall speak in their respective 
places. 

Boccaccio, and several other ancient authors, have 
made use of chente, singular, and chenti, plural, instead 
of quale, and quali; but at present these words are 
entirely out of use, and are understood only by those 
who are acquainted with the works of those authors. 

remarks on che and quale. 

1. Che, relating to a whole foregoing phrase or sen- 
tence, instead of particular substantives as above, may 
or may not be declined with the definite article, and is 
declined thus : il che, del che, al che, dal cite. 

B. 4. 7. Quantunque amor volentieri le case d£ nobili 



SYNTAX OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 333 

uomini abiti, esso percio non rifiuta lo imperio di quelle 
de" poveri...I\ che...apparira nella mia novella; though 
love makes his habitation in the houses of great people, 
yet he does not disown all influence over the poor sort... 
which will appear... from my novel. 

B. 10. 6. A cui il re le commendo molto, confortandolo 
a maritarle. Dal che messer Neri...si scuso ; the king 
commended them very much, and advised him to marry 
them ; but he excused himself. 

B. 10. 10. Gualtieri con rnolti de'' suoi disse, che voleva 
procacciar col papa, che con ltd dispensasse, che urf altra 
donna prender poiesse* e lasciar Griselda : di che egli da 
assai buoni uomini fu ripreso ; Gualtieri declared before 
many people of his suit, that he meant to solicit the 
pope for a dispensation to take another woman to wife, 
and send Griselda away ; for which he was much blamed. 
Di che for del che. 

But we are of opinion that it is better to make use of 
the article in such cases ; for without it the sense is ren- 
dered rather doubtful, and destitute of energy. 

£. Che is sometimes used as an indeclinable relative, 
as if it contained in itself the import of the preposition, 
with which it is to be accompanied. 

B. 1. 3. // Giudeo liberamente d^ogni quantita, che il 
Saladino il richiese, il servi ; the Jew freely supplied 
Saladin with what he wanted. That is, <Togni quantitd 
della quale. 

B. 7. 10. Covi* io giunsi di la, trovai molti compagni a 
quella medcsima pena condennati, che io ; having arrived 
there, 1 found a great many people condemned to the 
same punishment as I was. That is, a quella pena alia 
quale. 

B. 10. 9- Voglio io che tu rrHaspetti un anno senza 
rimaritarti incominciando da questo d\ che io mi parto ; 
I request that you will wait a year without marrying 
again, reckoning from the day of my leaving you. That 
is, da questo d\ nel quale. 



334 SYNTAX OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

3. Che, in phrases implying doubt, stands for quel 
che or cosa, and is expressed by what. 

B. 8. 7. E delta donna ricordandosi, per vedere che di 
lei fosse, se ne ritomd alia torre ; and recollecting the 
lady, he returned to the tower, to see what was become 
of her. Che for quel che fosse, or cosa fosse, Sec. 

B. £. 9. Madonna, di che vol abbiate offeso il vostro 
marito, io nol so ; Madam, I know not what is your 
offence towards your husband. Di che for di che 
cosa. 

4. Cui, being a genitive governed by a substantive, 
not by a verb, may be used without di, the mark of the 
genitive, and put between the article and the substantive 
by which it is governed. 

B 2. 3. Iddio mi pose avanti agli occhj questo gio- 
vane, li cui costumi e il cui valor e son degni di qualun- 
que gran donna; I accidentally got acquainted with 
this young man, whose merit and behaviour make him 
worthy of any noble lady. The author might also 
have said, li costumi e il valor e di cui, or di cui li cos- 
tumi e il valor e, without impropriety, or altering the 
sense. 

B. 4. 7. Era sotto il cesto .... una botta .... dal 
cui venenifero Jiato avvisarono quella salvia esser vele- 
nosa divenuta ; under the plant was a toad, with the 
breath of which it was judged the sage leaves were in- 
fected. That is, dal venenifero Jiato di cui. 

If, however, the substantive which governs the geni- 
tive cui is casa, without an article, cui is to be put after 
it without di. 

B. 4. 8. E mentre il corrotto grandissimo si faceva, 
il buon uomo in casa cui morto era, disse alia Salvestra; 
and whilst they were mourning, the honest man in whose 
house he died said to Salvestra. That is, in casa di 
cui. 

5. Cui being a dative, and governed by a verb, may 
be used without «, the mark of the dative. 



SYNTAX OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 385 

B. Filoc. Dimandarono chi costoro fossero, cui la 
fortuna e tanfo contraria ; they asked who those people 
were to whom fortune was so adverse. Cui for a 
cui. 

B. Filoc. Allor la vede con quegli occhj cui nulla 
cosa si pud celare ; then he will see her with eyes from 
which nothing can be hidden. Cui for a cui. 

6. Cui has been used by good writers instead of chi 
and quale* but the student is not to imitate such a prac- 
tice, but be contented with the rules we have set down 
on this subject. 

7. Quale in similes has no articles, and signifies as, 
like, or such as. 

B. Filoc. E questo detto sopra il letto ricadde supino, 
divenuto nel viso, quale e la molto secca cenere ; and 
thus saying, he fell backward on his bed as pale as 
dry ashes. 

8. Quale, in phrases expressive of doubt, is likewise 
used without an article, and signifies which, what. 

B. 1. 3. Ne sapeva esso rnedesimo eleggere a quale 
pitl tosto lasciare il volesse ; he was at a loss which of 
them to prefer. 

B. 10. 8. Non so quale Iddio dentro mi stimola a 
doverti il mio peccato manvfestare ; I know not what 
God within me spurs me on to make a confession of my 
guilt. 

_ 9. Quale, used as a distributive, and being repeated in 
the same sentence, has no article, and it is rendered in 
English by some, some, others. 

B. 2. 3. E le lor donne e ijigliuoli piccioletti qual 
se n* ando in contado, e qual qua, e qual la povera- 
mente in arnese ; and their wives and children ran 
away, some going into the country, some to one place, 
and others to other places, in a most distressful con- 
dition. 

In this example, quale might have been changed for 
chi, and we think it is better, as in the following one. 



336 SYNTAX OF INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 

B. Introd. Molti andavano attorno, portando nelle 
mam chi jiori, chi erbe odorifere, e chi diverse manure di 
spezierie ; a great many people walked every where, 
some of them holding flowers, others aromatic herbs, 
and others different kinds of spice. 

10. From die, quale, chi, are formed die che, qual- 
sisia* qualsivoglia, qualche, qualunque, qualcheduno, 
qualcosa, qualcuno, chi eke, all of which will be spoken 
of in their respective places. 



SYNTAX OF INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS, 

The relative pronouns die, quale, and chi, are also 
used as interrogative pronouns, both in the singular and 
plural; but they are not applied as relatives, nor do 
they take articles. 

RULE L. 

Che being absolute, that is, without the company of 
a substantive, is used in speaking of things, has no 
plural, and signifies what. 

B. 7. 9. Or, che avesti, chefai cotal viso ? Now, what 
is the matter — why such an angry face ? 

B. 9. 1. O se essi mi cacciasser gli occhj ... a che 
sarei ? If they were to tear out my eyes . . . what 
should I do ? 

Instead of che we may use cosa; as, Cosa dite ? What . 
do you say ? Cosa volete ? What do you want ? But 
this is better used in a familiar style. 

But when che is accompanied with a substantive, it 
is used in speaking of men and things of both genders 
and numbers. 

B. 9. 6. Voste . . . disse seco stesso: che diavol fa 
costui qui ? The host said to himself : What the devil 
is the man doing here ? 

In like manner we say, Che uomo e costui ? What 



SYNTAX OF INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 337 

man is he ? Che donna e colei di cui mi parlate ? What 
woman is she of whom you speak ? Che uomini son 
questi ? What sort of men are these ? 



RULE LI. 

Quale is always accompanied with a substantive, and 
is used in speaking of men or things of both genders, 
and in the plural makes quali. In speaking of men, 
or of things, quale signifies what. 

B. 10. 8. Quale amore, qual ricchezza, qual paren- 
tado avrebbe i sospiri di Tito con tanta efficacia fatti a 
Gisippo nel cuor sentire, se non costei f What degree 
of love, wealth, affinity, could have wrought so effec- 
tually upon the heart of Gysippus, to make him feel the 
pangs of Titus, but this (friendship) ? 

If it is used for chi, it is used alone, but then the sub- 
stantive is understood. 

Salviati Mon. Quale e quello tra noi? Who is the 
person among us ? That is, qual uomo e quello, or 
chi e quello ? 

Salviati Disc, on Paint. Qual e mai tanto da cordoglio 
. . .aggravate ? Who is so oppressed with grief ? That 
is, qual uomo e mai ? or chi e mai ? 



RULE LII. 

Chi is used in speaking of persons only of both genders 
and numbers, and signifies who. 

B. 4. 10. II qual brancolare sentendo le femmine che 
deste erano, cominciarono a dire, chi e la? The women, 
on hearing such a noise, cried aloud, saying, Who is 
there ? 

In like manner we say, Chi era colei? Who was that 
woman ? Chi son costoro ? Who are those ? 



888 SYNTAX OF INDETERMINATE PRONOUNS. 

REMARKS ON THE INTERROGATIVES die, quale, cM. 

Che being absolute, cannot be changed for quale ; but 
being accompanied with a substantive, it may be easily 
used, without any apprehension of error. Thus, we 
may say, che uomini, or quali uomini son costoro ? What 
sort of men are those ? But we cannot say quale avete 
for che avete, unless we say quale male avete ? 

Quale, in speaking of persons, may be changed for chi, 
and chi for quale. So we may say qual e costui? or 
chi e costui t The latter mode, however, is preferable. 

All these words are often accompanied with mai in 
interrogative sentences expressive of doubts, to give 
more strength to them ; as, Che maigli avrafatto ? What 
may he have done to him ? Chi mai sard ? Who can 
he be ? 

Quale, followed by a genitive, may be used in speak- 
ing of persons and things of both genders, but chi only 
of persons. 

Quale di due libri ? Which of the two books ? Quale 
(U quegli uomini ? Which of those men ? &c. 

Chidi voi ? Which of you ? Chi di loro t Which 
of them ? 



SYNTAX OF INDETERMINATE OR IMPROPER PRONOUNS. 

Having spoken of the use of the article which is to 
be prefixed to these pronouns, and likewise of their 
retrenchment in page ] 07, we are now to speak of their 
different significations, and of their places, when they are 
used as adjectives. Those that have but one significa- 
tion will not be mentioned here, as that which has been 
said in the first part we think is sufficient. 

RULE LIII. 

Alcuno, with all its oblique cases, as a substantive, is 
used in speaking of persons, and literally signifies any 
one, some people. 



SYNTAX OF INDETERMINATE PRONOUNS. 339 

B. 10. 4. In Persia quando alcuno vuole onorare U 
§uo amico, egli lo ^nvita a casa sua ; in Persia, when 
any one has a mind to shew respect to his friend, he 
invites him to his house. 

B. 4, 8. Alcuni sono li quali, pm che Taltre genti si 
credono sapere, e sanno meno; there are some people 
who think they know more than other folks, when they 
know less. 

But when alcuno is accompanied with a negative, it is 
rendered by nobody, or no one. 

B. 3. End. Era si hello il giardino, che alcuno non vi 
fu, che elegesse di quello uscire ; the garden was so plea- 
sant, that there was nobody who chose to leave it. 

B. 7. 9. Non consiglierei alcuna, che dietro alle pedate 
di lei...+s > arrischiasse d'andare; I would advise no one 
to run the risk of following her path. 

Alcuno, as an adjective, is used in speaking of per- 
sons or things, is to agree with its substantive in gender 
and number, and is generally placed before it, but some- 
times it is put after. 

B. 6. 10. A costui . . . avea frate Cipolla comandato, 
che ben guardasse, che alcuna persona non toccasse le 
cose sue ; Friar Cipolla had ordered this fellow to take 
care that nobody should meddle with any thing belong- 
ing to him. 

B. 2. Proem. Per lo fresco avendo niangiato, dopo 
alcun ballo iandarono a riposare ; having taken a 
repast in the open air, after dancing they went to 
rest. 

B. 7. End. // rejlnito la sua novella, ne altro alcun 
restandovi a dire, levatasi la corona di testa, sopra il 
capo la pose a Lauretta ; the king concluded his novel, 
and as no one else was to speak, he arose, and taking the 
crown from his own head, placed it upon Lauretta's. 



RULE LIV. 

Alquanto, as an adjective, is used in speaking of per- 
0, 2 



MO SYNTAX OF INDETERMINATE PRONOUNS. 

sons and things, and is made to agree with the substan- 
tive which it is to qualify, in gender and number. It is 
used throughout all its oblique cases, and its literal sig- 
nification is a little, some, or several. 

B. Fiam. Ma dopo alquanto spazio etta a me ritorno ; 
But after a little time she came back to me. 

B. 8. 7. Io intendo di farvi avere alquanta com pas- 
sione d? una giusta retribuzione ad una nostra cittadina 
renduta ; I intend to move your compassion for a just 
return, which a lady of our city met with. 

B. 3. 5. E quinci tacendo, alquante lagrime mandate 
per gli occhj fuori, comincio ad attendere quello die la 
gentildonna gli rispondesse ; then he ceased, and with 
tears in his eyes he sat, expecting the lady's answer. 

In the first example, alquanto agrees with spazio a 
substantive masculine ; in the second, with compassione a 
substantive feminine ; and in the third, with lagrime a 
substantive feminine plural. 

Alquanti, plural of alquanto, is used as a substantive 
in speaking of persons, and its signification is some, or 
several of them. 

B. 8. 7. Ed ultimamente alquanti, die risentiti, erano 
air arme cor si, rfuccisero ; and finally they murdered 
several (of them), who being awakened, had taken up 
arms. 

B. 3. 7. Per la qital cosa da alquanti il diviso e lo 
invito del peregrino era stato biasimaio ; on that account 
the disguise and the invitation of the pilgrim had been 
blamed by some of them. 

Alquanto, as an adverb, if it is accompanied with a 
verb, denotes quantity of time, and signifies some time, 
or a little while, and also diminution of action, and sig- 
nifies a little, somewhat. 

B. 8. 10. Ella, uscita dalla camera, e stata alquanto, 
tomb deniro piangendo ; she went out of the room, and, 
after some time, she came in with tears in her eyes. 

B. 2. 6. Ella vide venire una cavriola, ed entrare ivi 



SYNTAX OF INDETERMINATE PRONOUNS. 341 

vicino in una caverna, e dopo alquanto uscirne ; she saw 
a she-goat enter a cavern near her, and after a little while 
come out again. 

B. 9. 7. Venuto il giorno chiaro, e alquanto la tem- 
pesta acchetata, la donna alzo la testa ; when the day 
cleared up, and the storm abated a little, the lady lifted 
her head. 

In the same sense it is likewise accompanied with sub- 
stantives of both genders and numbers, and its literal 
signification is a little, or rather. 

B. 3. End. La Lauretta con maniera alquanto pietosa^ 
comincio cost ; Lauretta thus began in a manner rather 
pathetic. 

Cresc. Sono ancora certi cavoli, che hanno le Jbglie 
grandly sottili e alquanto crespe ; there is a kind of cole, 
the leaves of which are large, thin, and rather curled. 



RULE LV. 

Altrettanto, which is also spelt altretanto, is composed 
of altro and tanto, and being used as an adjective, it is 
to agree with its substantive in gender and number. Its 
signification is as much for the singular, and as many 
for the plural. 

B. 10. 2. Ne prima vi torno che il seguente <Ti, con 
altrettanto pane arrostito e con altrettanta vernaccia ; he 
did not return till next morning, with as much toasted 
bread and wine as before. 

B. Amet. Ed uccise cento pecore, ed altrettanti vitelli, 
cost comincio a dire ; and having killed a hundred sheep, 
and as many calves, he thus began to speak. 

Altrettanto, as an adverb, generally has the cor- 
respondence of come and quanto, which are expressed 
by as. 

Vill. Delia venuta de 1 cavalieri i Fiorentini furono 
altrettanto contenti, come se fosse venuto U duca in per- 
sona ; the Florentines were as much pleased with the 
arrival of the noblemen, as if the duke himself were come. 



342 SYNTAX OF INDETERMINATE FR0N0UKS. 

B. Fiam. Egli mi mostrd, altrettanto i diletti nascod 
valere, quanto i tesori sottoterra occultati ; he shewed 
me, that hidden pleasures have as much value as treasures 
hidden under ground. 

RULE LVI. 
Altro, as an adjective, is used in speaking of persons 
and things, and is to agree with its substantive in gender 
and number. Its signification is another for the singular, 
and others for the plural. 

B. 3. 8. Altro marito aver non posso ; I cannot have 
another husband, or rather, I cannot marry again, 

B. Introd. Qui sono giardini, qui altri luoghi dilette- 
voli ; here are gardens, there are other pleasant places. 

Altro, with an article, is often accompanied with names 
of time, such as d\ giorno, jeri, settimana, mese, anno^ 
mattina, sera, thus : T altro d/i, T altro giorno, raltr\jeri, 
&c, which expressions are rendered, the day before 
yesterday, the night, the evening before last, &c. 

B. 8. 10. i*T il vero, che egli ci e alcuna persona, U 
quale P altr* ieri mi servl dei cinque cento fiorini che mi 
mancavano ; it is true that a person the day before yes- 
terday lent me the five hundred florins which I wanted. 

B. 9. 10. I/altr* annoys a Barletta un buon noma 
chiamato Gianni. The year before last there was at 
Barletta a man called Gianni. 

Altro, with the same names as above, has often been 
used for dopo, vegnente, seguente ; next, or following. 

B. 9. 5. Ma Y altro di recata la ribeba, canto piu can- 
zoni con essa ; accordingly the next, or the following, 
morning, he took his guitar with him, and sang a long 
time. 

Altro, as an adjective, has been used in the sense of 
thai which remains, or the remaining part. 

B. 4. 5. Gli spiced dallo imbusto la testa, e la terra 
sopra V altro corpo gittata, quindi si parti ; she cut off his 
head, and covering the trunk again with the mould, she 
went away ; that is, il resto del corpo. 



SYNTAX OF INDETERMINATE PRONOUNS. 843 

B. Fiam. Nel tempo nel quale la rivestita terra piu, 
che tutto V altro anno si mostra bella . . . venni io al mondo ; 
I was born when the ground, adorned by nature, is more 
beautiful than in all other seasons ; that is, piu che 
tutto il resto deW anno. 

Altro, as a substantive neuter, signifies something else, 
any thing else, differently. 

B. 8. 7. E cost dimorando costei, piu la morte aspet- 
tando che altro, lo scolare sene torno alia torre ; she being 
in that situation, and preferring death to any thing else, 
the scholar went back to the tower. 

B. 7. 3. Non seppe si Filostrato parlare oscuro, che 
V avvedute donne ne ridessero, sembiantejucendo di rider 
(T altro ; Philostratus did not speak so covertly as to 
prevent the ladies from laughing at it, though they 
seemed to laugh at something else. 

B. 8. 9. Altro avresti detto, se tu m! avessi veduto a 
Bologna ; you would have spoken differently, had you 
seen me when I was at Bologna. 



RULE LVII. 
Altri, as a substantive, is used in the nominative sin- 
gular in speaking only of persons: it signifies any 
one. 

B. 1. 8. Ne vol ne altri mi potra piu dire che io non 
V abbia veduta ; neither you nor any one else shall be 
able to say that I am unacquainted with her. 

The oblique cases of altri are <P altrui, ad altrui, altrui, 
da altrui ; or d* altri, ad altri, altri, da altri. The former 
are better employed, but we do not think it is a fault to 
use the latter instead. 

B. 3. 8. Io mi lascerei innanzi morire* che io cosa 
dicessi ad altrui; I would rather die than disclose the 
secret to any body. 

B. 5. 8. La giovane, la qual sapeva che da altrui, che 

da lei rimaso non era, che moglie di Nastagio stata non 

Jbsse,glifece rispondere; the lady, who was sensible that 

it had been her fault they were not married, sent word to 



844 SYNTAX OF INDETERMINATE PRONOUNS. 

Anastasius ; or otherwise — the lady, who knew that it 
had not been the fault of any body but herself. 

B. Fiam. Qual folio mio mi f ha tolto e datoti ad 
altri ? What fault of mine has induced you to leave 
me, and give yourself up to another (woman) ? 

Altri) in the plural, is a correlative of uni, alcuni, 
quali) or any other word used as a distributive, and sig- 
nifies the latter, others. 

B. Fiam. Poi immaginai di voler Jure ', siccome fecero 
i Saguntini, e gli Abidei, gli uni tementi Annibale Car- 
taginese, e gli altri Filippo Macedonico ; then I thought 
I should do as the Saguntines and the Abideians did ; 
the former fearing Hannibal of Carthage, the latter 
Philip of Macedon. 

Altri> as a substantive singular, is changed into altro 
whenever it is preceded by uno 9 alcuno, questo, or some 
other particle of a singular signification. 

B. 3. 2. Un altro gli avrebbe voluti Jar martoriare ; 
another would have had them martyred. Not un altri. 

B. 10. 3. Comincio a fare le piu smisurate cortesie 9 
che maijacesse alcuno altro a chi andava e veniva per 
quindi; he began to be more generous than any one 
else to all comers and goers. 

It is to be observed that altrui is also indeclinable, 
and may be placed either after the substantive by which 
it is governed, or between the article and the said 
substantive. 

Gozz. Che agevolmente prestava essa Jede alle parole 
altrui; for she easily believed all that people said; that 
is, alle parole di altrui. 

B. Introd. Molto jpiu cid per Taltrui case Jacendo ; 
doing that still more in other people's houses ; that is, 
per le case di altrui. 

B. 7. 9. Ricordatu che una volta senza piu suole avve- 
nire, che lajbrtuna si fa altrui incontro col viso lieto ; re- 
collect that fortune is wont to come once in our lives to 
us with a cheerful countenance; that is, si fa incontro 
ad altrui. 



SYNTAX OF INDETERMINATE PRONOUNS. 345 

RULE LVIII. 

Ciascheduno and ciascuno, are used throughout their 
cases in speaking of persons, as substantives ; and signify 
every erne. These words have their feminine gender in a, 
thus : ciascheduna and ciascuna ; but they have no 
plural, and if any example is found contrary to this rule, 
it is not to be imitated. 

B. 5. 6. Ed in brieve ciaschedun la voleva; and finally, 
every one would have her. 

B. Concl. E lasciando omai ciascheduna, o dire, o 
credere come le pare, tempo e da porjine alle parole ; and 
allowing every one to speak or believe as they choose, 
let us put an end to our discourse. 

B. 5. End. Lareina...comando die ciascuno s'andasse 
ariposare; the queen. ..ordered that every one should 
go to rest. 

As adjectives, these pronouns are to agree with a 
substantive singular in gender, and signify each or every, 

B. 1.2. Convenevole cosa e die ciascheduna cosa...fc 
dea principio ; it is right that each action which a man 
does, he should begin, &c. 

B. Filoc. Manifesta cosa e, die ciascuno uomo ne' suoi 
sonni vegga mirabili cose ; it is certain that (every man 
or) men see wonderful things in their sleep. 

Ciascuno is often found followed by per se, thus cias- 
cuno per se, when it has different significations, or it is used 
as an expletive, as will be seen in the following examples. 

B. 3. 7. Ciascun per se, e poi tutC insieme apertamente 
confessaro se essere stati coloro die Teddldo ucciso ave- 
vano; they first, one by one, and then all together, con- 
fessed the fact, namely, that they had murdered Tedaldo. 

B. 8. 10. Le quali cose tutte imieme, e ciascuna per se 
gli fecero stimare, costei dover essere una grande e ricca 
donna; all which things together made him conclude 
that she was some great lady. Ciascuna per se is an exple- 
tive, the literal signification of which is, each separately. 

Catauno, catuno, caduno, for ciascuno and ciascheduno* 

%4 



346 SYNTAX OF INDETERMINATE PRONOUNS. 

are found in old authors, but they are too obsolete to be 
imitated. Cadauno likewise is considered by some as 
obsolete, but we think it may be used sometimes instead 
of ciascuno with impunity. 



RULE LIX. 
Chiunque, which is pronounced in three syllables, thus, 
chi-un-que, as a substantive, is used in speaking of per- 
sons of both genders, and has no plural. 

B. 9. 5. Dio lajhccia trista, chiunque ella e ; plague 
upon her, whoever she is. 

B. 10. 3. Ed avendo bella famiglia, con piacevolczza 
e confesta chiunque andava e veniva, Jhceva ricevere 
ed onorare ; and having a great number of servants, he 
had all goers and comers honoured and respected with 
all possible civility. 

Chiunque for qualunque, as an adjective, has been 
used by Crescenzio and other authors, but we think it is 
not proper. 



RULE LX. 

Cotale, as an adjective, is to agree with its substantive 
in gender and number, and signifies certain, this, such. 

B. 3. 10. La giovane non da ordinario desiderio ma 
da un cotal fanciullesco appetito, ad andar verso il de- 
serto di Tebaida . . . si mise ; the young girl, not governed 
by a reasonable desire, but by a certain youthful im- 
pulse, started for the desert of Thebais. 

B. 1. 7. Ma poiche le rise rimasejurono, Filostrato in 
cotal guisa cowmcio a parlare ; but when they finished 
laughing, Philostratus began to speak in this manner, or 
rather thus. 

B. Fiam. In questa maniera can cotali pensieri mlinge- 
gnava di trapassare i giorni ; in this manner I endea- 
voured to pass my days immersed in such thoughts. 

Cotale^ as an adverb, signifies so, 

B. 8. 6. Calandrino gV invito a cena cotale alia trista. 



SYKTAX OF INDETERMINATE PRONOUNS. 347 

sicche costoro non vi vollon cenare ; Calandrino invited 
them to supper, but so sorrowfully, that they would not 
accept the invitation. We, however, do not advise the 
student to use cotale in that sense, as it is not very 
intelligible. 

Cotali, plural of cotale, is also used as a substantive, with 
the masculine article i, when it comprehends both genders. 

B. Jntrod. I cotali son morti, gli altrettali son per 
morire ; such ones are dead, others are about to die. 



RULE LXI. 

Cotanto, as an adjective, is used in speaking of per- 
sons and things, and is made to agree with its substan- 
tive in gender and number. Its signification is the 
same as tanto, so much ; and it is used instead of tanto 
for more energy. 

B. 3. 6. Oime ! . . . a cui ho io cotanti anni portato 
cotanto amore ? Alas ! whom have I loved in this 
manner for so many years ? The author could as well 
have said tanti anni and tanto amore ; but the sentence 
would be rather destitute of that force which it possesses. 

Cotanto, adverb, is also used with the correspondence 
of die or quanto. 

B. 4. 6. Gia Dio non voglia, die cosi giovane, e co- 
tanto da me amato . . . che io sqfferi die a guisa d'un 
cane sia sepellito ; heaven forbid that I should ever 
suffer a youth so much beloved by me, to be buried 
like a dog. 

B. 4. 4. Ed imposegli che . . . gli dicesse, che or a si 
parrehhe\ se cotanto Tamasse, quanto piil volte signifi- 
catoavea ; she ordered him to acquaint him, that it would 
now appear whether he loved her so much as he had 
often declared. 

RULE LXIL 
Dessohas both genders and numbers, thus : desm, de§§u 



348 SYNTAX OF INBETJERMiSATfi *&Otf0tftfjL- 

desse, and signifies the same. It is always used in the no- 
minative, and generally with the verb essere or par ere. 

B. 9. 3. Hai tu sentito stanotte cosa niuna ? Tu non 
mi par desso. Has any thing been the matter with you 
last night ? You seem not to be the same person. 

B. 3. % Avendone dunque il re molti cerchi, ne alcun 
trovandone, il quale giudicasse essere stato desso, per- 
venue a colui ; having then looked for many, and finding 
no one who he thought could be the same person, he 
came to him. 

B. 10. 9. Vide quelle robe, che al Saladino avea la sua 
donna donate, ma non estimo dover poter esser che 
desse fossero ; he cast his eye on those robes which his 
wife had given to the Saladin, but he could not imagine 
they could be the same. 

Desso and dessa are sometimes used instead of colui, 
colei, he, she, it. 

B. J 0. 8. Io temo che i parenti suoi non la dieno 
prestamente ad un altro, il qual Jbrse no?t sarai desso 
tu ; I am afraid lest her parents should bestow her upon 
some other person, and perhaps it will not be you. It 
instead of he, meaning colui or desso. 

B. 3. 3. Ti dico io di lei cotanto, che se rnai io ne 
trovai alcuna di queste siocchezze schifa, ella e dessa ; 
let me tell you, if there be a woman in the world averse 
to such follies, it is she. 

RULE LXIII. 

Medesimo and siesso are used as adjectives, and have 
both genders and numbers. They signify the same, and 
are sometimes joined to personal pronouns. 

B. Lab. Guardando tra molte^ che quivi it eraiw in 
quello medesimo abito ; looking at so many women who 
were there j dressed in the same robes. 

B. 5* 5. Creduto abbiamo che costei nella casa, che rni 
fu quel di stesso arsa, ardesse ; we supposed she was the 
same day burnt along with the house. 

B. 3. % Purche noi medesime nol diciamo ; provided 
we do not say it ourselves* 



SYNTAX OF INDETERMINATE PRONOUNS. 849 

B. 3. 1. EUe non sanno quello, cJi elle si vogliano 
elleno stesse ; they themselves do not know what they 
want. 

Medesimo and stesso sometimes are accompanied with 
meco, teco, seco ; they signify myself ] thyself, &c. or are 
used as expletives. 

B. Fiam. Certo voter not del . . . se savia teco mede- 
sima ti consigli ; certainly you ought not to accede to it, 
if you think better on it. 

B. 7. 5. La quale questo vedendo, disse seco medesima: 
lodato sia Iddio ; who, on seeing that, said to herself — 
praised be God. 



RULE LXIV. 

Nessuno or nissuno, and niuno or nullo, used as sub- 
stantives, have the feminine gender in a, thus, nessuna, 
niuna. 

These words sometimes affirm, and sometimes deny, 
as will be seen in the following examples. 

Firenz. Nessuno, nessuno, traditor ribaldo, nessuno 
V ha potuto rubare se non tu ; no, rascally traitor, no, 
nobody but you has stolen it. 

Stor. Pistol. jE quando nessuno n* era preso, subito era 
impiccato per la gola ; and when any one was taken, he 
was directly hung by the neck. Nessuno affirms. 

B. 3. 1. 77 luogo e assai lontano di qui, e niuno mi vi 
conosce ; it is very far from hence, and nobody knows 
me there. Niuno denies. 

Pass. Nullo parla volentieri at mutolo ; nobody will 
willingly speak to a dumb person. Nullo denies. 

Fov. Ant. 21. Trovossi in Melano niuno, che contra- 
diasse alia potestate ? Was there ever found in Milan 
any body who was against the power ? Niuno affirms. 

We, however, agree with those who use these 
words negatively; and the student, we hope, will agree 
with us. 



350 SYNTAX OF INDETERMINATE PRONOUNS. 

When these words, in the same sense as above, are 
accompanied with the negative non, non is put before 
the verb, and they are placed after it. 

B. 8. 9- Egli non ce it e niuno, che non vi paresse 
un imperadore ; there is no one who does not appear an 
emperor. 

Vill. i* S ar acini fur ono sconjitti e morti, che quasi di 
tutti quelli che passarono non ne scampo nullo ; the Sara- 
cens were defeated and put to death, and of all those 
that passed no one escaped. 

Nessuno, niuno, and^ nullo, as adjectives, agree with 
their substantive singular in gender, and are subject tv 
the same rules as above. 

Albertano. Perclie nessuno uomo e libero, la quale 
serve al corpo ; because no man is free who is subser- 
vient to his body. 

B. 8. 7. Niuna gloria e ad un! aquila aver vinta 
una colomba ; it is no glory for an eagle to overcome a 
poor dove. 

Vill. Era morto in quelV anno lo Re d? Ungheria del 
quale non rimase nullo figliuolo maschio ; that year the 
King of Hungary departed this life, and left no male 
issue. 

These words have sometimes been used in the plural 
by good authors, but we advise the student to take no 
notice of them, and to make use of the singular. 

Neuno, nimo, gnuno, ullo, have been used by good 
writers, but at present they are obsolete. 



RULE LXV. 



Ogni is accompanied with singular nouns, both mas- 
culine and feminine, but never with plural nouns ; and 
though it has been used by different authors, we ad- 
vise the student to use the singular, as in the following 
examples. 



SYNTAX OF INDETERMINATE PRONOUNS. 351 

B. 1. 2. E per quello che io estimi con ogrri sollecitu- 
dine, con ogni ingegno e con ogni arte, mi pare che si 
procaccino di riducere a nulla, e di cacciare del mondo la 
cristiana religione; and by what I can perceive, it 
seems that they strive with their whole might and skill 
to overthrow the christian religion, and to drive it from 
the face of the earth. Literally it would be, with every 
care, with every skill, with every art, but that would not 
be English. 

Ogni is accompanied with una, making one word; 
thus, ognuno, which has the feminine gender ognuna, 
but not the plural, and it is always used as a sub- 
stantive. 

B. 5. 1. Con grandissima ammirazione d? ognuno; 
with great wonder of every one. 

B. 1. 6. Se per ognuna cento vene sienorcndute di la ; 
if for every one of those you are to receive a hundred 
in the other world. 



RULE LXVL 

Parecchj masculine and parecchie feminine have no 
singular as adjectives, and are to agree with their sub- 
stantives plural in gender, either of persons or things. 

B. 3. 1. Dove parecchj giorni il tenne ; where he kept 
him several days. 

B. 3. 9. A cui avea parecchie belle e care gioje do?iate ; 
to whom he had given several jewels of great value. 

These words are sometimes used as distributives, and 
have the correspondence of altri, niolti. 

B, 3. 1. Parecchj ri andaro in contado, altri abban- 
donarono il paese natio ; several went into the country, 
others left their native country. 

Quale has been spoken of in treating of relatives, 
page 328. 



352 SYNTAX OF INDETERMINATE PRONOUNS. 



RULELXVU. 

Qualche is accompanied with nouns of both genders, 
has no plural, and is used in speaking of persons and 
things. 

B. 7. 3. Se io fossi pur vestito, qualche modo ci 
mrebbe ; had I but my clothes on, we could find some 
excuse. 

B. 8. 8. Egli trovi qualche cagione di partirsi da me ; 
he shall find some reason to go from me. 

Qualche, spelt qual che, signifies literally whoever, and 
the verb with which it is accompanied is to be put in 
the subjunctive. 

B. 2. 8. Iddio m* ha dimostrato la cagione del tuo 
male, la quale niuna altra cosa e, che soverchio amore, U 
quale tu parti ad alcuna giovane qual che ella sia ; God 
has made manifest to me the cause of your illness ; I 
know now that it is occasioned by the great affec- 
tion which you bear to some young woman, whoever 
she is. 

Qualche, followed by the word cosa, loses che, and 
makes one word with cosa; thus, qualcosa, signifying 
something. 

Firenz. Trin. E ^ io dicessu cJC io ne so qualcosa, che 
direste? Were I to say that I know something about 
it, what would you say ? 

Borgh. Fies. Pare che ragionevol cosa sia dire di 
Fiesole qual cosa ; I think it is right to say something 
of Fiesole. 

Qualche, followed by uno, is spelt three ways indif- 
ferently ; thus, qualcuno, quale}? uno, and qualcheduno. 
Their signification is some, or any, or somebody. 

Pass. Or chi potra scampare da tanti lacciuoli, che 
non siapreso da qualcuno ? Who can then pass through 
so many snares without being caught in some (of 
them) ? 



SYNTAX OF INDETERMINATE PRONOUNS. 353 

Firenz. E pero doniamolo a qualcheduno ; and 
therefore let us give it to somebody. 



RULE LXVIII. 

Qualsisia and qualsivoglia are used in speaking of 
persons and things, both masculine and feminine. They 
signify whosoever, whatsoever. 

Gelli. Tutte le cause che si agitavano in qualsivoglia 
paese ; all the lawsuits which took place in what country 
soever. 

These two words make qualsisiano and qualsivogliano 
in the plural ; but they are not frequently used. 



RULE LXIX. 
Qualunque is accompanied with substantives of both 
genders and numbers. 

B. 5. 6. Estimando vilissima cosa essere a qualunque 
Uomo si fosse, non che ad un re, due ignudi uccidere dor~ 
mendo, si ritenne ; reflecting that it would be a very vile 
action in any person, and more so in a king, to kill two 
persons unarmed and asleep, he withdrew his hand. 

B. Lab. Qualunque persona, tacendo, i benejicj rice* 
vuti nascande ... dimostra se essere ingrato ; whoever 
tries to hide the good actions he has received, shews he 
is ungrateful. 

Cresc. Qualunque piante hanno i Jrutti aromatici, e 
caldi, e secchi, piit e convenevole di piantare ne > monti ; 
all those plants, the fruit of which is aromatic, warm, and 
dry, are better to be planted on mountains. 

In these examples qualunque is accompanied with 
uomo of course masculine, persona of the feminine gen- 
der, and piante a substantive feminine plural: we think 
it is better not to accompany it with a substantive plural, 
as it is not frequently used by good authors. 

Quanto and tanto have been treated of at large under 
the head of comparatives, page 263. 



354 SYNTAX OF INDETERMINATE PRONOUNS. 



RULE LXX. 

Tale, as a substantive, is used in speaking of sub- 
stantives of both genders, and is followed by the relative 
che, who. Its signification is one, any, some. 

B. Filoc. Tal rise degli altrui danni^ che de 1 suoi dopo 
picciol tempo pianse, e funne riso; he laughed at others'" 
misfortunes, who after a little while wept for his own, 
and was laughed at in his turn. 

B. Introd. E tali fuwno che per difetto di baresopra 
alcuna tavola ne ponieno ; and there were some who 
were placed on boards for want of biers. 

Tale, as an adjective, is used in the same sense as 
above ; but its literal signification is such. 

B. 1.4. E pensando seco stesso, che questa potrebbe 
essere tal femmina, ojigliuola di tale uomo, cK egli non 
le vorrebbe averfatta quella vergogna, s* avviso di voler 
prima veder chi fosse ; supposing that she might be a 
woman of condition, or the daughter of such a man whom 
he would not have disgraced, he thought it best to see 
iirst who she was. 

Tale and tali are often preceded by demonstrative 
pronouns, and their literal signification is such a one as 
this, such ones as these, or such people. 

Castigli. Cort. Se a queste tali fosse licito fare il 
divorzio ; if such women as these were permitted to have 
a divorce. 

Borgh. Cotesti tali s* immaginano che Ercole sia in 
atto di combattere con Cacco ; such ones as these imagine 
that Hercules is going to fight with Cacus. 

Tali, plural of tale, being repeated in a sentence, is 
used as a distributive, and its signification is some, or the 
former and the latter. 

Nov. Ant. 61. Convenne che disvestisse di Cavalieri 
di sua terra, e donasse a! cavalieri di corte : tali rijiu- 
taro e tali acconsentiro ; he was obliged to deprive the 



SYNTAX OF INDETERMINATE PRONOUNS. 355 

nobles of their lands, and give them to those of the court : 
some refused, and some consented. 

Tale is used with the correspondence of quale, and 
sometimes of come, but quale is preferable. Its signifi- 
cation is what. 

B. 8. End. E tal nel viso divenne, quale in su V aurora 
son le vermiglie rose ; her face was overspread with a 
blush, such as roses have in the morning. 

B. 9. 10. E per conseguente piu largo arbitrio debbo 
avere in dimostrarvi tal, quale io sono ; and consequently 
I am more at liberty to shew you what I am. 

Grad. S. Girol. Perdonaie a tutti cohro, cite vifanno, 
male, die tal perdono trover a ciascuno in verso Dio, com' 
egli agli altri uomini ; forgive those who have offended 
you, for God will deal with every one as every one deals 
with others. 



RULE LXXI. 

Tutto, taken as a substantive, is used in speaking of 
things in the singular when it is always masculine, and 
of persons in the plural, making tutti, tutte. 

B. 2. 9. Iddio, die tutto conosce, sa; God, who knows 
every thing, knows. 

B. 2. 6. Ed a tutti diceva, die di do domandata laves- 
sero, die suoi figliuoli erano ; she said to all those who 
asked her, they were her own children. 

B. Introd. Tutti sopra la verde erba si posero in 
cerchio a sedere ; every one sat down in a circle on the 
green grass. 

B. Introd. Pregogli per parte di tutte; he begged 
him from all the ladies. 

Tutto, as an adjective, is placed before the article and 
its substantive, whether of persons or things ; and it is 
to agree with it in gender and number. Its signification 
is all 

B. Lab. Tutti i pensieri dellefemmine, tutto lo studio, 
tutte le opere, a niuna altra cosa tirano, se non a rubare^ 



256 SYNTAX OF INDETERMINATE PRONOUNS. 

a signoreggiare, e ad ingannare gli uomini; all the 
thoughts, the attention, and actions of women, tend to 
nothing but to rob, to lord over, and to cheat men. 

B. 1. 2. Comincio a riguardare alle maniere di tutti i 
cortegiani ; he began to inspect narrowly the manner 
of living of all the courtiers. 

Sometimes the substantive which is to follow tutto, 
loses the article, but then tutto is in the sense of ogni, 
every, and not all. 

Pass. Riverito, onorato, careggiato da tutte genti ; 
respected, honoured, and caressed by every body ; that 
is, da ogni gente. 

Nov. Ant. La gente che aveva bontade veniva a lui da 
tutte parti ; good people came to him from every place. 

Tutto, preceding an adjective, without its substantive, 
is made to agree with the said adjective, and is used as 
an expletive, but then the adjective with which it is 
accompanied becomes an adverb, as in the following 
examples. 

B. 2. 7. Ilfamiglio trovo la giovane sotto il becco della 
proda della nave tutta timida star nascosa ; the servant 
found the lady all in a tremble, having hidden herself 
under the projecting part of the prow. 

B. S. 9. Senza aspettar dUesser sollicitata da? sum, cost 
tutta vaga comincio a parlare ; without being urged by 
her companions, she charmingly began to speak in these 
terms. 

In these examples, timida and vaga relate to giovane, 
and to ella which is understood. 

If, however, the adjective tutto is followed by solo, 
or soletto, tutto is expressed quite, or entirely. 

B. % 8. E postosi..xon lei sopra un letto in una 
camera tutti soli a seder e... ella comincio a dire ; and being 
quite alone in a room they sat down on a bed, and then 
she said. 

B. 10. 3. Mitradanes ... rfandd al boschetto, e vide 
Natcm tutto soletto andar passeggiando per quello; 



SYNTAX OF INDETERMINATE PI10N0UNS. 357 

Mithridanes went to the grove, where he saw Nathan 
walking quite alone. 

Tutto, followed by a numeral noun, takes the par- 
ticle e. 

B. 7. 8. E disse : frategli rniei ... che andate voi 
cercando a quest ova tutti e tre ? and she said : Brothers, 
what is the meaning of your coming all three at such an 
hour? 

Sometimes a is found instead of £, but it ought not to 
be imitated. We think, however, that it is better to 
suppress both one and the other, saying, tutti due, tutti 
tre> &c. 

Tutto sometimes joins with quanto, making tuttoqucmto, 
tutta quanta, tutti quanti, tutte quante, when quanto is 
an expletive. 

B. 8. % Voi siete tutti quanti piu scarsi che il Jistolo ; 
you are all as stingy as the devil himself. 



RULE LXXIL 

Veruno is used in speaking of persons and things ; it 
denies or affirms, and has no plural. 

Pass. Dice Job : Chi e colui che abbia contrastato a 
Dio, ed abbia pace ; quasi dica, non e veruno ; Job says : 
Who is the person that is happy after having offended 
God ? As if he would say, there is no one. 

As an adjective, veruno is to agree with the sub- 
stantive in gender and number, and in the same sense 
as above. 

Pass. I peccati veniali in verun modo si perdonano 
sanza i mortali ; venial sins can in no way be pardoned, 
if mortal ones are not first pardoned. 

B. Filoc. Quivi Eolo veruna potenzia non ha ; Eolus 
has no power here. 



858 SYNTAX OF VERES. 



SYNTAX OF VEKBS. 

Of the Agreement of the Verb with its Nominative 
Case. 

RULE LXXIIL 

A verb is to agree with its nominative case, either ex- 
pressed or understood, in number and person. 

B. 5. 3. Pietro Boccamazza si fugge con TAgnolella, 
truova ladroni ; Pietro Boccamazza elopes with Agno* 
lella, meets with thieves. Si fugge and truova are 
verbs in the third person singular, which are made to 
agree with Pietro s their nominative case expressed. 

B. 3. 10. Graziose donne, voi non udiste Jbrse rnai 
dire ; charming ladies, perhaps you never heard. 
Udiste is a verb in the second person plural, and made 
to agree with voi, the nominative case expressed. 

B. 5. 8. Ed avviene die ogni Venerdiio la giungo qu% 
e qui nejb lo strazio, che vedrai ; and it happens that I 
overtake her here every Friday, and in this place I 
slaughter her, as thou wilt see. Vedrai is a verb in the 
second person singular, which is made to agree with tu, 
its nominative understood. 

Instead of a noun or pronoun, the nominative case 
sometimes may be an infinitive or part of a sentence, in 
which case the verb is to be put in the third person 
singular. 

B. 10. 7. Signor rnio, il volere io le rnie Jbrze sotto- 
porre a gravissimi jpesi, rrC e di questa infermita ca- 
gione ; my lord, by opposing my little strength to too 
heavy a burden, I have happened to languish in this 
manner. IT is the verb in the third person singular, 
which is made to agree with votere, an infinitive, stand- 
ing as a nominative case. 

B. 5. 3. Che tu con noi ti rimanga per questa sera 
n* h caro ; we should be very glad if you would stay 



SYNTAX OF VERBS. 359 

with us this evening. E s is a verb in the third person 
singular, which is made to agree with che tu con not 
rimanga, a part of the sentence, standing as a nomi- 
native. 

When a verb comes between two nouns, one singular 
and another plural, and either of which may be under- 
stood as the subject of the affirmation, it may agree 
with either of them ; but some regard must be had to 
that which is more naturally the subject of it, as also to 
that which stands next to the verb. 

B. Varchi. Dunque la lingua Latina e la volgare non 
sono una, ma due lingue ; the Latin, therefore, and the 
vulgar tongues, are not one, but two languages. 

Cavalcanti. Ma quello che cotal peso addosso rrC ag- 
grava, sono...fe belle opere vostre ; but that which 
oppresses me so much are your fine actions. 



RULE LXXIV, 

When two or more nouns are the subjects of a sen- 
tence, the verb which they govern is to be put in the 
plural, and it is made to agree with the most worthy 
person, always considering the first more worthy than 
the second, and the second more worthy than the 
third. 

B. 10. 9. Sarebbemi stato carissimo . . . che quel tempo y 
che voi ed io viver dobbiamo nel governo del regno, die 
io tengo parimente, signori vivuti fossimo ; I should 
have been very glad that what time we have to live, 
we might have reigned together in these our kingdoms. 
Dobbiamo andjbssimo, verbs in the first person plural, 
which are made to agree with the first person io, in pre- 
ference to voi a second person. 

B. 10. 10. Essi sono quegli li quali y tu e molti altri 

lungamente stimato avete, che io crudelmente uccidere 

facessi ; they are the same whom you and many others 

believed that I had ordered to be put to death. Avete y 

a verb in the second person plural, is made to agree 



360 SYNTAX OF VERBS. 

with the second person tu, in preference to molti altri 
a third person. 

B. 9. 9. E pero nel mio judicio cape, tutte quelle 
(donne) essere degne di rigido ed aspro gasligamento, eke 
daW esser piacevoli, benivole, e pieghevoli, come la natura, 
Tusanza e le leggi vogliono, si partono ; therefore, I am 
of opinion that such women as are not mild, gracious, 
and condescending, as nature, custom, and the laws, 
require, are deserving of the greatest punishment. Vo- 
gliono is in the third person plural, as it is the attribute 
of three substantives, natura, usanza, and leggi. 

1. We find in writers of note the verb in the singular, 
although it is the attribute of more subjects than 
one, and especially when these subjects or nominative 
cases are nearly related, or scarcely distinguishable in 
sense. * 

B. 3. 3. Taceva la Pampinea e Tardire, e la cautela 
del pallqfreniere era da piil di loro stata lodata ; Pam- 
pinea ceased, and the boldness and shrewdness of the 
groom were much commended by most of them. 

In the above example Tardive and la cautela are sub- 
stantives in the nominative case, and nearly related to 
each other, and consequently the verb may be put in 
the singular, era for erano. But to support this con- 
struction we can assign no other reason than that which 
is adopted by the greatest part of grammarians, who 
assert that the verb may be understood as applied to 
each of the preceding terms, thus, Vardire era 9 and la 
cautela era. This, however, may be right, but as it 
belongs to figurative construction, we advise the learner 
not to imitate it until he has made a considerable pro- 
gress in the study of the Italian language. 

2. Though the attribute of more subjects than one, 
the verb may be put in the singular, or it may agree 
with the next nominative or subject, whenever the said 
nominative cases, by a particular construction, which is 
called figurative, are made to follow the verb, of which 
they are the subjects. 



SYNTAX OF VERBS. 361 

B. 10. 4. Se quello e vero, che . . . pongasi la propia 
vita, Ton ore e la fama . . . in mille pericolic per poter la 
cosa amata possedere ; if it is true that people run a 
thousand risks of losing their lives, their honour, and 
their fame, only to come to the possession of the thing 
desired. Pongasi for si ponga, a verb in the third per- 
son singular, is made to agree with the next noun 
propia vita, because all the three substantives follow 
the verb. 

B. 10. 9. Partissi il Saladino e* compagni ; the Sala- 
din and his companions departed. Partissi for si parfi, 
a verb in the third person singular, is made to agree 
with the next noun Saladino. 

B. 10. 9. Lungo sarebbe a mostrare qual fosse e quanto 
il dolore, la tristezza, e il pianto delta sua donna ; it 
would be tedious to describe the grief, affliction, and 
tears of his lady. Fosse* a verb in the third person 
singular, is made to agree with the next noun dolore. 



RULE LXXV. 

A verb may be put either in the singular or plural, 
whenever two nominative cases, both singular, or one sin- 
gular and another plural, are separated by these words, 
con, insieme con, in cornpagnia di. 

B. 5. 3. Quivi Martuccio la sposo . . . e poi appresso 
con lei insieme in pace, ed in riposo lungamiente goderono 
del loro amore ; there Martuccio was united to her in 
marriage, and afterwards he lived with her, in all peace 
and happiness, to a good old age. Goderono or gode. 

B. 5. 3. Pietro . . . capita a quel castello dove UAgno- 
lella era^ e sposatala, con lei se rc£torna a Roma ; Pietro 
arrives at the same castle where Agnolelia was, and 
having married her, returns to Rome with her. Se ne 
torna or se ne tornano. 

B. 5. 1. E venuto dalla citta Lisimaco . . .con gran- 
dissima cornpagnia d\iomini e $ arme, Cimone e'suoi 
compagni tutti ne mend in prigione ; and after having 

R 



362 SYNTAX OF VERBS. 

arrived from the town, Lisimaco, with a great many 
people, took Cymon and his followers prisoners. Ne 
mend or ne menarono. 

Sometimes two verbs happen to be in such sentences 
as the above, in that case the first may be put in the sin- 
gular, and the second in the plural number. 

B. 5. 3. Pietro . . . con lei insieme monto a cavallo, e 
presero il cammin verso Alagna; Peter and she got on 
horseback, and set out for Alagna. Monto a verb in 
the singular, and presero in the plural number. 

1. Come anche, or anche may be added to the above 
words, but with this the verb is better put in the 
plural. lo, come anche tu, abbiamo torto ; I, as well as 
thou, am wrong. 

RULE LXXVI. 

Two or more nominative cases in the third person 
singular, being accompanied with the conjunctions dis- 
junctive o, ossia, ovvero, signifying either, or, require the 
verb in the singular number. 

B. 5. 3. Gli domando se in quelle parti fosse villa o 
castello, dove egli andar potesse ; he inquired whether 
there was any town or castle in those parts whither he 
could go. Fosse, a third person singular, is governed 
by villa o castello, nominative cases, accompanied with 
the conjunction o. 

B. 3. 8. Percio, se quinci non comincia la cagwne 
del mio ben adoperare, il confessarmi o altro bene poco 
mi giovera ; therefore, if I do not find any remedy 
here, confession, or any other good work will be of little 
effect. Giovera, third person singular, is governed by 
il confessarmi o altro bene, nominative cases, accompanied 
with the conjunction o. 

But if the nominative cases are of different persons, 
the verb may be put in the plural, and made to agree 
with the most worthy person, considering the first as 
more worthy than the second, and the second more 
worthy than the third, as Ave said in Rule LXXI. 



SYNTAX OF VERBS. 363 

B. 3. 7. Come, disse la donna . . . sat tu chi mio marito 
o io ci siamo? the lady said, What do you know 
either of roe or my husband ? Siamo, first person 
plural, is made to agree with io a pronoun in the first 
person singular, and not with tu a pronoun in the second 
person. 

B. Varchi. Vorrei che voi o eglino mi diceste ; I wish 
that either you or they would tell me. Diceste, second 
person plural, is made to agree with vol a pronoun in 
the second person, and not with eglino a pronoun in 
the third person. 

Good writers have sometimes put the verb in the 
plural, although the nominative cases, accompanied 
with the conjunction disjunctive o, were in the singular 
number. 

B. 5. 4. Ricciardo, del quale niurC altra guardia 
Messer Lizio o la moglle prendevano, che fatto avreb- 
bono dun lor jigliuolo, ecc. ; Ricciardo, from whom M. 
Lizio and his wife were under no more apprehension 
than they would have been from their own son, &c. 



RULE LXXVII. 

Two or more nominative cases, accompanied with the 
conjunction negative ne . . . ne, signifying neither — nor, 
require the verb to be either in the singular or plural, 
though some modern grammarians will confine it to the 
plural only. 

B. 10. 8. Se egli (Bio) avesse veduto die a me si con- 
venisse costei, ne tu ne altri dee credere, che max a te 
conceduta V avesse ; had heaven decreed that she should 
be a fit wife for me, neither you nor any body else 
ought to believe that she would be destined for you. 
Dee, a verb in the third person singular. 

B. 4. 10. Madonna, di Ruggier dice ogni uom male, 
ne . . . amico, ne parente alcuno e, che levato si sia ; 
iVladam, there is nobody that speaks well of Ruggieri, 

it 2 



864 SYNTAX OF VERBS. 

nor is there a friend or relation that intends to assist him* 
2? s and sia> verbs in the third person singular. 

And sometimes if in the same sentence there happen 
to be two verbs, one is put in the singular, and the other 
in the plural. 

B. 5. 10. Quando c'invecchiamo, ne marito ne altri ci 
vuol vedere, anzi ci cacciano in cucina a dir delle favole 
con la gatta ; when we are old, neither husband nor any- 
body else will look at us ; nay, they will drive us into 
the kitchen to converse with the cat. Vuol, third person 
singular ; cacciano, third person plural. 

Sometimes one of the nominatives is singular, and 
another plural ; in that case the verb may agree with 
either, but it is to be placed next to that nominative 
with which it is made to agree. 

B. 10. 9- Percfie se low merito non ne segue, ne essi y 
ne altri maravigliar si deve; if, therefore, no merit 
ensue from thence, neither they nor any one else ought 
to be surprised. It would have been equally proper to 
say ne altri, ne essi maravigliar si debbono. 

But if the nominative cases are of different persons, 
the verb is put in the plural, and made to agree with the 
most worthy person. 

B. 4. 1. Amor pud troppo pin die ne vol, ne io pos- 
siamo ; love has greater power than either you or I have. 
Possiamo, a verb in the plural, agreeing with io, first 
person, more worthy than voi the second. 

B. 3. 7. Ne essi ne voi conoscete colui che Tha ucciso ; 
neither they nor you know him who has killed him. Co- 
noscete, a verb in the plural, is made to agree w T ith voi 
a second person more worthy than essi the third. 



RULE LXXVIII. 



When two or more nominatives are accompanied with 
one of these words, namely, uno, ciascuno, ogni, ne 
altro, niuno, qualche, the verb may be put in the sin- 
gular. 



SYNTAX OF VERBS. 365 

B. 10. 8. Una fratellanza ed una amicizia si grande 
ne nacque tra loro, che rnai poi . . . f u separata ; bro- 
therly affection, and so strict a friendship, sprung up 
between them as never afterwards was rent asunder. 

B. 8. ?. Questa liber alita d'Aldobrandino piacque 
molto cC fratelli di Tedaldo, ed a ciascuno uomo e donna 
che quivi era ; Aldobrandino^s liberality was very agree- 
able to Tedaldo's brothers, and to all present, both men 
and women. 

B. 3. 5. Dalla quale sola ogni mia pace, ogni rnio bene, 
e la mia salute venir mi puote ; on whom alone all my 
peace, happiness, and life, depend. 

B. 3. 2. Ne altro ingegno, ne via c* era ; there was no 
other means nor way. 

B. 4. 6. Caro mio signore, se la tua anima ora le rnie 
lagrime vede, o niun conoscimento o sentimento dopo la 
partita di quella rimane al corpo, ricevi Vultimo demo 
di colei la quale tu vivendo amasti ; my dear lord, if 
thy soul has any knowledge of my tears, or if there be 
any sense or understanding left after that is departed 
from the body, receive this last gift from her who was 
once so dear to thee. 

In the above examples the verbs nacque, fu, era, 
puote, and rimane, are in the singular, though each of 
them is the attribute of two or more nominative cases. 



RULE LXXIX. 

A noun collective, or a noun of multitude, such as 
Jamiglia, gente, moltitudine, corte^ signoria, parte, 
meta, terzo* resto, &c. &c. requires the verb in the sin- 
gular number. 

B. 3. 2. Se aiandb in una lunghissima casa . . . nella 
quale quasi tutta la sua famiglia in diver si letti dormiva ; 
he went into along chamber, where almost all his house- 
hold lay in different beds. 

B. 3. 6. CK ella era presta d? esser domani . . . quando 
la gente dorme, a questo bagno ; that she was ready to 



366 SYNTAX OF VERBS. 

be the next morning at the baths, when people are 
sleeping. 

B. 3. 10. Laonde . . . Neerbale . . . ritrovatala avanti 
the la corte . . . i beni sfati del padre . . . occupasse . . . per 
moglie la prese ; therefore, Neherbal having found her 
before her fathers wealth fell into the hands of the 
court, took her to wife. 

B. 3. 7. La signoria, venuto il giorno . . . Aldobran- 
dino libero; the judges the next day released Al- 
dobrandino. 

In like manner we say, il senato ha dettato leggi ; the 
senate has enacted laws. II parlamento si radunera 
ai venti di Jennqjo ; the parliament will assemble on the 
20th of January. 

1 . It is to be observed that if one of the nouns col- 
lective is the subject of more verbs than one in the 
same sentence, the first one or two are put in the singular 
number ; and the last, whether one or more, being too 
far distant from its or their subject, may be put in the 
plural number, as in the following examples. 

B. 3. 8. Ma poiche la gente alquanio si fu rassicurata 
con lui 9 e videro, cK egli era vivo ; but when people were 
somewhat convinced of his being alive. 

B. 9. 2. Le quali in due si divisero, ed una parte se 
ne mise a guardia delC uscio, e urU altra n > ando cor- 
rendo alia camera della Badessa . . . e dissero ; they 
divided themselves into parties, one guarded the entrance 
into her room, whilst the other ran to the abbess's cham- 
ber . . . and said. 

In the above examples videro'aud dissero are verbs 
put in the plural number, because they are second verbs 
and far distant from their subject. 

2. Sometimes the verb, being governed by a noun 
collective, has been put in the plural by writers, as they 
have had more regard to the import of the noun than to 
the word itself. 

Nov. Ant. 83. La suafamiglia avevano un di preso 



SYNTAX OF VERBS, 367 

un pentolajo per malleveria ; one day his family took a 
potter for bail. 

B. 2. 6. // popolo a fur ore cor so alia prigione, e uccise 
le guar die, lui n ^avevan tratto fuori ; the people ran 
furiously to the prison, and having slain the guards, set 
him at liberty. 

G. Villani. Potete vedere come il comune popolo erano 
ignoranti del vero Iddio ; you may see how ignorant of 
the true God the common people were. 

But this practice the student ought on no account to 
imitate. 

3. When some of the nouns collective, such as parte^ 
meta, resto, rimaso, terzo, &c. are followed by a genitive, 
the verb is to agree with this genitive, that is, if the geni- 
tive is singular the verb is to be singular, and if the geni- 
tive is plural, the verb likewise is to be put in the plural. 

Davila. Per cite, una gran parte del la fanteria^.s^era 
ritirata in luogo sicuro ; because a great part of the 
infantry had retired to a safe place. S'era is in the 
singular, because dellafanteria, the genitive of parte, is 
in the singular number. 

Varchi. Che le maggior parte degli scrittori vadano 
dietro non agVinsegnamenti de 1 filosqfi ; that the greatest 
part of writers do not follow the doctrine of the philoso- 
phers. Vadano a verb in the plural, because degli scrit- 
tori, the genitive of parte, is in the plural number. 

Villani. In Gelmomt la meta e piu delle case sono 
rovinate ; in Gelmona more than half of the houses 
were demolished. Sono a verb in the pural, because delle 
case the genitive of meta, is in the plural number. 

B. 10. 9. La qual durante ...quasi tutto il rimaso degli 
scampati cristmui ... da lui...i'ur presi; during which 
almost all the rest of the Christians who had escaped, 
were taken by him. Fur iovjurono a verb in the plural, 
because degli scampati cristiani, the genitive of rimaso, 
is in the singular number. (1) 

(l) Contrary to this rale we say, la moltitudine de* soldati era 
grande ; the multitude of soldiers was great. La folia degli ahitanti 



368 SYNTAX OF VERBS. 



OF THE POSITION OF THE FINITE VERB, WHEN ACCOM- 
PANIED WITH ITS NOMINATIVE CASE, EXPRESSED, 
NOT UNDERSTOOD. 

RULE LXXX. 

The verb is generally placed after its nominative case, 
as Iddio e giusto, God is just. Pietro ama 9 Peter loves. 
This rule, however, is liable to many exceptions. 

1. When a command is given, the verb is put before 
its nominative case. 

Cavalcanti. Spengasi, spengasi ne' vostri -petti ogni 
scintilla di pestifero sdegno ; accendasi in quelli ardente 
fiarama di sincero amove ; drive, oh drive away from your 
hearts every spark of destructive anger, introduce into 
them a fervent flame of sincere affection. Spengasi and 
accendasi are the verbs, which are placed before scintilla 
and Jiamma their nominative cases. 

% When a question is asked, the verb is to precede 
its nominative case. 

B. 5. 3. Ojigliuola, die vai tu a quest ^ora cost sola 
facendo per questa contrada ? daughter, what are you 
doing in this street at this time of day ? Vai 9 a verb, 
is put before tu, its nominative case. 

In such an instance the verb may sometimes be put 
after its nominative case, but then it is the emphasis of 
the voice, which is to shew that a question is asked. 

B 4. 10. Qaesto che vuol dire? what can this mean ? 
Vuol is put after questo its nominative. 

3. When a wish or imprecation is expressed, the verb 
may be put before its nominative case. 



era immensa; the crowd of the inhabitants was immense. II resto di 
essi era composto di un capitano, ecc. ; the rest consisted of a captain, 
&c. But then it is to be observed that those adjectives refer directly 
to the collectives in the nominative case, and not their genitives. 
Observe, that if an adjective or participle happens to be with the col- 
lectives, it is subject to the same rule as the verbs. See Participle. 



SYNTAX OF VERBS. 369 

B. 3. 3. E volesse Iddio che ilpassarvi o il guatarmi 
glijbsse bastato ; and would to heaven that his passing 
by, and gazing at me would satisfy him. 

Bembo. Faccia il cielo die le mie fortune mi diano di 
metterli in opra ; would to heaven that my fortune would 
allow me to put them into execution. 

B. 4. 1. Maladetta sia la crudelta di colui che con gli 
occhi delta fronte or mi ti fa vedere ; cursed be the 
cruelty of him through whom my eyes now see you. 

In these three examples, volesse, faccia, and sia, ex- 
pressing a wish or imprecation, are made to precede 
Iddio, cielo, and crudelta, their nominative cases. 

4. When the verb is neuter, and is preceded by a 
sentence or part of it, it may be placed before its nomi- 
native case. 

Firenzuola. E standosi cost di mala voglia, venne 
alia volta sua un gambero ; and as he (a bird) was thus 
ill at ease, a crab came up to him. 

B. 5- 3. Essi si videro vicini ad un castelletto, del 
quale, essendo stati veduti, subitamente uscirono da 
dodici fanti ; they came in sight of a small castle, when 
being perceived from thence, about twelve men came 
rushing upon them* 

In these two examples venne and uscirono being neuter 
verbs, are made to precede their nominative cases gam- 
bero and fanti. 

5. When a verb is preceded by a negative^ it may be 
placed before its nominative case. 

Firenzuola. Ne me ne ha mai parlato alcuno . . . che 
7i07i me Tabbia dipinta uguale alia mia Gostanza ; every 
one has described her to me as equal to my Gos- 
tanza. 

Gelli. Ne si trova fiaalmente virtu alcuna in coloro, 
che si son dati in preda alia gola ; finally, no virtue can 
be found in those who have given themselves up to 
gluttony. 

Gelli. Dove dominano i sensi, non ha luogo la ragione ; 

a 3 



370 SYNTAX OF VERBS. 

e dove regna la libidine, non pud star la temperanza ; 
reason cannot find place in men addicted to pleasures, 
nor can sobriety be accompanied with lust. 

In these three example, ha parlato, trova, ha luogo, 
and pud, being preceded by negatives, are placed before 
their nominative cases, alcuno, ragione, virtu^ and 
temperanza. 

In like manner we say non lo so nemmeno io ; nor do 
I know it either. Non lo crederai neppur tu ; nor even 
you will believe it : in which examples so and crederai 
are made to precede the nominative cases io and tu. 

6. In exclamations accompanied by come or quanto, 
the verb is put before the nominative case, 

Gelli. Oh come son vere queste cose ! Oh how true 
it is. 

Gelli. Oh come spesso cascano tutti i vecchi in questo 
errore! Oh ! how often do old men fall into this error. 

In these two examples son and cascano are placed 
before cose and vecchi their nominative cases, because 
they are preceded by come. 

7. When one of the following words, dove, ci, vi, qui, 
qua, ivi, quivi, quindi, quanto, cost, and also di qui, di Id, 
and perhaps a few more of similar kind, begins a sen- 
tence or phrase, the verb may precede the nominative 
case. 

B. 5. 3 E se per isciagura ... ce ne venisse alcuna; 
and if, unluckily for us, any one should come here. 

B. 5. 3. Era il castello d' uno degli Orsini, e per Ven- 
tura y > era una sua donna ; the castle belonged to one of 
the family of the Orsini, and by good fortune his lady 
was there. 

B. Introd. Qui sono giardini, qua altri luoghi dilette- 
Toli ; here are gardens, there, pleasant places. 

Pecor. 16. 2. Qua non bisognano parole ; words are 
not necessary in this business. 

Tolomei. Perche, chi e quello che non sappia, quanto 
sia egli inferiore dijbrze ? because, who does not know 
how inferior he is in strength ? 



SYNTAX OF VERBS. 371 

In like manner we say, ivi trovo egli V arnico ; there 
did he meet with his friend ; quivi ando il marito, thi- 
ther her husband went ; cosifecero gli altri re ; thus did 
the other kings. 

8. When in narrations a pronoun or person is men- 
tioned to have done or said any thing, the verb may be 
placed before its nominative case. 

B. 5. 4. Disse la donna : come pud esser questo ? disse 
Messer Lizio : tu il vedrai se tu vien tosto ; the lady 
said : how can that be ? M. Lizio said ; come imme- 
diately, and you will see it yourself. 

9. When an emphatical adjective introduces a sen- 
tence, the verb is put before its nominative case, to which 
the said adjective belongs. 

Dati. Incerta e la lunghezza della sua vita, assai 
stravagante la sua morte ; the duration of his life is un- 
certain, and his death singular. 

Soave. Dolce e in ogni tempo il beneficio ; to do good 
is pleasing at all times. 

10. When a verb is impersonal, or made so by means 
of the particles mi, ti, si, gli, le, ci, vi, it may be placed 
before its nominative case, or any part of speech that 
stands for it. 

A mm. Ant. AlV avaro nan falla cagione di negar ser- 
vizio ; the miser can always find a cause for refusing to 
do a service to his fellow creatures. 

Falla a verb, cagione its nominative case. 

It is to be observed that in some examples of the 
above exceptions, the verb may be put before or after 
its nominative ; such are the verbs expressing wish, as 
volesse Dio, or Dio volesse, would to heaven ; when verbs 
are neuter, venne un gambero, or nn gambero venne, a 
crab came ; when in narrations persons are mentioned to 
have done or said any thing ; la donna disse, or disse la 
donna ; and, finally, when a verb is made impersonal by 
the means of mi, ti, si, &c, as mi piace il pane, or il 
pane mi piace, I like bread. In all the other examples, 



372 OF THE GOVERNMENT OF VERBS. 

however, the position we have given to the verb is pre- 
ferable. 

There are a great many more rules concerning the 
position of the verb, but as they belong to the figurative 
construction, we forbear speaking farther of them here, 
as we think those we have laid down ai*e quite sufficient 
for a student who, being not far advanced in this study, 
desires to speak elegantly without fear of appearing 
pedantic. 



OF THE GOVERNMENT OF VERBS. 

Verbs may have for government either nouns or other 
verbs. The nouns are sometimes found in the genitive, 
sometimes in the dative, and sometimes in other cases, 
according to the quality of the verb which governs them ; 
and the verbs are sometimes in the infinitive, sometimes 
in the indicative, and sometimes in the subjunctive, 
according to the expressive signification of the verb by 
which they are influenced. 

RULE LXXXT. 

Verbs active commonly govern the accusative case, 
which may either be a noun or pronoun. Its position, 
as a noun, is generally after the verb, and as a pro- 
noun, before it ; as Pietro ama lo studio, Peter loves 
study ; egli non mi parla, he does not speak to me. 
Studio, being a noun, is put after the verb, and mi being 
a pronoun precedes it. 

This noun or pronoun being an accusative, and 
having no article or preposition before it, is called ab- 
solute or direct ; but when, besides this case, a genitive, 
or any other case is found in the sentence, that is called 
relative or indirect. 

B. 8. 7. Io ho amato ed amo Guiscardo; I have 
loved Guiscardo, and do love him still. 

B. 10. C. Per premiare il cavaliere dell' onore ricevuto 
da lui ; in order to reward the gentleman for the honour 
he had received of him. 



OF THE GOVERNMENT OF VERBS. old 

B. 4 10. Io non la vendei loro, ma esti questa 
notte passaia me F avranno imbolata ; I did not sell it 
(a chest) them, but I think that they took it from me 
last night. 

In the above examples Guiscardo, cavalier e, la, and V* 
are the absolute or direct cases, and delV onore, loro, and 
me, are indirect cases. 

Active Verbs governing an Accusative and Genitive. 

The following is a list of the principal verbs, occurring 
frequently in speaking, which govern different cases. 
We omit those that govern the accusative only, as they 
do not offer any difficulty to the student. 

accendere uno di to kindle one with 

accusare uno di to charge one with 

adornare cosa di to adorn a thing with 

amnionire uno di .. } , , . 7 » 

■• i to admonish one of 

avvertire uno di.... S J 

avvisare uno di to inform one of . 

biasimare uno di to blame one for 

castigare uno di to punish one for 

caricare cosa di to load a thing with 

colmare uno di to had one with 

compensare uno di to compensate one for 

coprire cosa di to cover a thing with 

"• , > cosa di to fill a thing iviih 

ferire uno di to strike one with 

fornire uno di.. to provide one with 

gravare uno di to trouble one with 

guarnire cosa di to garnish a thing with 

incaricare uno di to charge one with 

incolpare uno di , to impute a fault to one 

infiammare uno di .to inflame one with 

informare uno di to make one acquainted with 

ornare uno di to adorn one with 

pagare uno di > , * . 7 j. 

r °. ,. > to punish one for 

punire uno di S 

premiare uno di > , , » 

, . > , to reward one for 

ncompensare uno di $ J 

ringraziare uno di , to thank one for 



374 OF THE GOVERNMENT OF VERBS. 

rimprocciare uno di ) . , >. 

• r j. > to reproach one for 

runproverare uno di S r J 

ripieliare uno di ) , , j * 

riprdndereunodi \ *° reprehend one for 

spargere uno di to sprinkle one with 

vestire uno di to dress one with 

Verbs governing an Accusative and a Dative. 

accomandare uno a un altro..£o recommend one to another 

accordare cosa ad uno to grant a thing to one 

affissare cosa ad uno to fix a thing to one 

annoverare cosa ad uno to reckon things to one 

apporre cosa ad uno to accuse one wrongly of a thing 

apprestare cosa ad uno to prepare a thing for one 

aprire cosa ad uno to open a thing to one 

ascondere cosa ad uno to hide a thing from one 

ascrivere cosa ad uno ) . ,, ., , ., ■ . 

AA _ ., - i > to attribute a thins, to one 

attnbuire cosa ad uno S & 

celare cosa ad uno to hide a thing from one 

chiedere cosa ad uno to ask a thing of one 

commendare uno ad un altro../o commend one to another 

commettere cosa ad uno to commit a thing to one 

coneedere cosa ad uno to grant one a thing 

confidare cosa ad uno to entrust one with a thing 

consegnare cosa ad uno to deliver one a thing 

contare cosa ad uno to relate one a thing 

contendere cosa ad uno to dispute on a thing 

condurre cosa a fine to finish a thing 

convitare uno a to invite one to 

dare cosa ad uno to give one a thing 

descrivere cosa ad uno to describe a thing to one 

dire cosa ad uno to tell one of a thing 

domandare cosa ad uno > , 7 ,7- j> 1 ' 
,. , , > ...fo ask a thins of one 

dimandare cosa ad uno.. S 

donare cosa ad uno to present one with a thing 

fidare cosa ad uno to trust one with a thing 

fare cosa a uno to do one a thing 

fissare cosa a to fix a thing upon 

fraudare cosa ad uno to defraud one of a thing 

• l • ■ ,. ' j \ to lay snares for the thing of one 

msidiare cosa ad uno S 

involare cosa ad uno..... to rob one of a thing 

ispirare cosa ad uno to inspire one with a thing 

imputare cosa ad uno ........ Jo impute a thing to one 

invitare uno a to invite one to 

lasciare cosa ad uno to bequeath one a thing 



OF THE GOVERNMENT OF VERBS. 375 

legare cosa a to tie a thing to 

mandare cosa ad uno... to send one a thing 

nascondere cosa ad uno to hide a thing from one 

offerire cosa ad uno, or } . .«? „ ,7. „ 

*• 1 ' > to offer one a thing 

onrire cosa ad uno .. S 

perdonare cosa ad uno to forgive one for 

portare cosa ad uno to bring one a thing 

proibire cosa ad uno to forbid one a thing 

promettere cosa ad uno to promise one a thing 

raccomandare cosa ad uno. ...to recommend one a thing 

raccontare cosa ad uno „to relate one a thing 

restituire cosa ad uno to restore one a thing 

recare cosa ad uno to bring a thing to one 

rendere cosa ad uno to restore one a thing 

ricusare cosa ad uno to refuse one a thing 

rubare cosa ad uno to rob one of a thing 

scoprire cosa ad uno to discover a thing to one 

spiegare cosa ad uno to explain a thing to one 

stendere cosa ad uno to stretch a thing to one 

togliere cosa ad uno to take a thing from one 

vendere cosa ad uno to sell one a thing 

Verbs governing an Accusative and an Ablative. 

accattare cosa da uno to borrow a thing of one 

allontanare uno da to remove one from 

assolvere uno da to absolve one of 

1 i to drive one from, or 

cacciare uno da 1. . * i 

( to turn one out of 

cogliere cosa da to pick a thingfrom 

dividere cosa da to separate a thingfrom 

distogliere uno da to divert one from 

distornare uno da to turn one from 

disviare uno da to sway one from 

guarireuno da to cure one of 

levare cosa da to take a thingfrom 

liberare uno da to free one from 

partire cosa da to separate a thingfrom 

sciogliere cosa da to loosen a thingfrom 



separare cosa da ) , , , 7 • r 

sceverare cosa da \ to separate a thing frcn 

staccare cosa da to lake from 

sviare uno da to dissuade one from 

tirare cosa da ) ,7 , 7 • /• 

4.™™ ™ n i i ..t. to draw a thingfrom 

trarre cosa da 5 



376 OF THE GOVERNMENT OF VERBS. 



RULE LXXXII. 

Verbs passive govern a noun in the ablative, which 
is distinguished by the particles da, dallo, dal, dalla, 
dagli, da\ dalle. 

B. 5. 1. Molie novelle ... per dovere esser da me rac- 
contate, mi si paran davanti ; a great many novels come 
now into my mind, to be related by me. 

B. 5.1. Efigenia da molte nobili donne di Rodi Ju 
ricevuia ; Iphigenia was received by many noble Hhodian 
ladies. 

B. 5. 1. Ed alcuni altri die appressar si vollono, da' 
compagni di Lisimaco e Cimone fediti e ributtati in- 
dietro furono ; and many others who came to their relief 
were wounded and driven back by the followers of Lysi- 
machus and Cymon. 

Instead of da, dallo, &c. per is found in good writers. 

B. 5.-1. Costei esser la piu bella cosa, die giammai 
per alcuno veduta fosse ; she was the handsomest woman 
that was ever seen by any body. 

But this practice must not be imitated. 



RULE LXXXIII. 

Verbs neuter do not act upon or govern nouns or pro- 
nouns, as, egli dorme he sleeps, ella pensa she thinks, 
are not active verbs, and consequently they are not 
followed by a case specifying the object of an action ; 
but when this case comes after such verbs, though it 
may carry the appearance of being governed by them, it 
is generally affected by a preposition, or some other word 
understood. 

B. 7. 1. Cenarono un poco di carne salata; they sat 
together to a little salt meat. That is di un poco di 
came. 

B. 3. 10. Quantunque amore i lieti palagi ... e le nior- 
bide camere piil volentieri die le povere capanne abiti ; 



OF THE GOVERNMENT OF VERBS. 377 

although love dwells in gorgeous palaces, and sumptuous 
apartments, more willingly than in miserable and deso- 
late cottages. That is nei lieti palagi, nelle morbide 
camere, and nelle povere capanne. 

Some of the verbs neuter, though they do not admit 
of the accusative case, admit of another nominative be- 
sides their subject. This nominative, however, is not 
the subject of the verb, but a noun shewing the being, 
name, or quality of the subject in question ; as io sono 
iiomo, I am a man ; egli pare tin bruto, he is like a brute. 
Uomo and bruto are nominative cases. 



Verbs having two Nominatives. 



cssere ...... 


..to be 


restare 

ritornare... 
diventare .. 
vivere 


. ..to remain 


comparire . 
nascere 


...to appear 
,..to be bom 


...to return 
...to become 


rim an ere ... 


...to remain 
..to be 


,,.to live 


stare 


tornare 


„Jo become 



Verbs governing a Genitive. 



abbisognare...fo want 

cadere to fall 

fallire to fail 

fuggire.... to runaway 

gustare to taste 

man care to fail 

morire to die 

odorare to smell 

partire to depart 



ritornare to return 

ragionare to reason 

ri venire to come back 

sentire to smell 

venire to come 

discorrere to discourse 

tornare to come back 

uscire to go out 

passare to depart 



It is to be observed, that some of the above verbs 
govern also the ablative, as cadere di cavallo, or dalV alto 
di una casa, to fall from a horse, or the top of a house. 
Fuggire, partire, ritornare, rivenire, tornare, venire, 
govern di when the substantive is a noun expressive of 
place, and da when it is a person ; as vengo di casa, I 
come from home ; vengo da Pietro, I come from Peter. 
And again, parto di cittd, I depart from town ; parto da 
lid, I depart from him. 



378 



OF THE GOVERNMENT OF VERBS. 



Verbs governing a Dative. 



aggitingere....fr> add 

andare to go- 

appartenere ..to belong 

arrivare to arrive 

correre to run 

dispiacere to displease 

esser presto... to be ready 

fuggire to run 

garrire to scold 

giovare ...to be of use 

giungere to overtake 

mancare to fail 

parlare to speak 

pensare to think 

piacere to please 

p utire ........ to displease 

restare to be left 



saper grado ..to be obliged 

soprastare.or ) , , 

r > to nans, over 

sovrastare ..5 6 

stare bene ....to fit 

sgridare to scold 

tornare to redound 

tornare bene \ to *?. worth the 
t while 

ubbidire, or ) , , 

obbedire .. \ to obe ^ 

usare to frequent 

venire to come 

venire meno.. to fail 

volere bene ..to love 

tirare to aim 

trarre to run to 



In like manner we say esser pronto, to be ready ; 
utile, facile, useful, easy, &c. tornar conio, to be worth 
the while ; venir manco, to fail ; voler meglio, to love 
very much ; voler male, to dislike, &c. &c. 

Verbs governing an Ablative. 



andare. ...... ..to go 

cadere to fall 

de viare to deviate 

degen erar e ....to degenerate 

par tire to depart 

dipendere to depend 

fuggire to run away 



muovere to begin 

nascere to be born 

ritrarre to resemble 

scampare to escape 

tralignare to degenerate 

variare to vary 

derivare to be derived 



RULE LXXXIV. 

Verbs reflective or neuter passive, having a subject 
that acts upon itself, govern the following particles, mi, 
ti, sij in the singular, ci, vi, si, in the plural, as — ; 

B. 7 6. Io mi levai diritta ; I stood up. 
B. 8. 7. Lo scolare . . . s'esercitava per riscaldarsi; the 
scholar took exercise to get warm. 



OP THE GOVERNMENT OF VERBS. 



379 



Besides these particles, these verbs may govern other 
eases and prepositions, as — 

B. 4. 5. Delia mia lunga dimora, fattristi ; thou 
grievest for my long stay. Delia mia lunga dimora, 
a genitive governed by fattristi. 

G. Yillani. S^arrendeo la citta a Cesare. The town 
surrendered to Caesar. A Cesare dative, governed by 
iarrendeo, &c. 

Verbs reflective governing a Genitive. 

farsi beffe .. ) , , , . 
e • ui, i to laugh at 
tarsi gabbo. S b 

fornirsi to provide oneself 

fidarsi to trust to 

giovarsi to make use of 

gloriarsi to boast of 

informarsi ...Jo enquire about 

i^^t to meddle with 
mgenrsi..... J 

innamorarsi,..2o/tf// in love with 

maravigliarsi..fo wonder at 

nutrirsi to feed upon 

pentirsi to repent for 

piccarsi to pretend 

ricordarsi to recollect 

rldersi to laugh at 

riman er si to abstain from 

sbrigarsi to get rid of 

scusarsi to excuse oneself of 

sdegnarsi to be angry at 

tribularsi to grieve for 

valersi. to make use of 

vantarsi to boast of 

vergognarsi ...to be ashamed at 



accendersi .. % Jo be kindled with 

aecorgersi to perceive 

affliggersi to grieve at 

arrischiarsi . > , 

*.<..- y to venture 
atten tarsi... $ 

attristarsi to grieve for 

avvedersi... > . 

> to perceive 
avvisarsi.... > l 

beffarsi to laugh at 

brigarsi to endeavour 

cibarsi to feed upon 

conoscersi ....to understand 

, . S to console oneself 
consolarsi.. < * J 

I for 

curarsi to care for 

. ( to contain oneself 
contenersi.. { - J 

I from 

S to be contented 

X with 

crucciarsi to be angry at 

dimenticarsi ..to forget 

disciogliersi...£o be dissolved 

to contradict one ■ 

self 



contentarsi 



disdirsi 



Verbs reflective governing a Dative. 



abbattersi to meet with 

abbandonarsi .to give oneself up 
accordarsi ....to agree with 
accostumarsi. .to be accustomed to 

accusarsi to accuse oneself to 

adattarsi ...... to adapt oneself to 

addarsi to give oneself up 

apparecchiarsi/o prepare oneself 



appigliarsi ....to pursue 

, i to surrender one- 

arrendersi.. < 7 ,, 

t self to 

.aweriirsi to meet with 

$ to be accustomed 
X to 

attenersi .. ,. .Jo confide to 



avvezzarsi. . 



380 



OF THE GOVERNMENT OF VERBS. 



confessarsi.^;;^ onesel f 

confidarsi to trust to 

darsi ....to give oneself up 

fidarsi to trust to 

obbligarsi to oblige oneself to 

ofFrirsi to offer oneself to 



opporsi to oppose 

ostinarsi to be obstinate 

prepararsi.. } to Prep™ oneself 

raccoman- (to recommend one- 

darsi ^ self to 

rifuggirsi to take shelter to 



Verbs reflective governing an Ablative. 



alienarsi to withdraw from 

allontanarsi...£o go away from 



assentarsi 



5 to absent oneself 

X f 



from 

d\\ a n ! > aK i..\ t y o % adistance 



ntirarsi, or ) , .,, , * 

ritrarsi. . .. .. \ to mthdraw f rom 

separarsi .to separate oneself 

.**««—«: Sto tear oneself 
staccarsi.... < /. J 

( from 



Verbs reflective governing different Prepositions 

intendersi con < ° 



abbattersi in to meet with 

abboccarsi con ..to confer with 

EC ™TJ? a iL~ > to be a partner 
narsi con... \ r 

acconciarsi con..fo settle with 

accontarsi con ..to confer with 

accordarsi con ..to agree with 

anfaticarsi con ..to endeavour with 

aggirarsi per ....to wander 

awenirsi in to meet with 

avvolgersi per...£o wander 

confidarsi in to trust in 

congiungersiconfo be united with 

consigliarsicon..£o consult with 

convertirsi in.... to be converted in 

fermarsi in to stop 

imparen tarsi con to be allied with 



understand 
each other 
intopparsi in ....to meet with 

levarsi in to stand -upon 

mettersi con ....to set about 

mettersi in to put on 

nascondersi in ..to conceal oneself 

porsi in to put on 

riconciliarsi i to make one's 

con \ peace 

ripararsi in to take refuge to 

riserbarsi per. ...to keep oneself for 

risolversi in to dissolve 

ritrovarsi con. ...to be present with 

$ to close oneself up 

\ with 
scontrarsi in ...,to meet with 



nnserrarsi con 



RULE LXXXV. 

Verbs impersonal, when they are absolute, such as 
tuonare to thunder, piovere to rain, &c. do not govern 
any case ; but when otherwise, they commonly govern a 
dative. 

F. Guittone Lett. Come accade sl buoni, cost, fraiello> 



OF THE GOVERNMENT OF VERBS. 381 

mi pare che accaggia d cattivi; brother, I think that as 
it befalls good people so it befalls bad people. 

B. 1. 10. Questa novella, la quale a me tocca di dover 
dire, voglio ve ne renda amrnaestrate ; I desire that the 
novel which I am to relate may make you all wise. 

In these examples d buoni and d cattivi are both in 
the dative case, which are governed by accade and 
accaggia, and a me is governed by tocca. 

It is to be observed, that most of the above verbs, 
active, neuter, and reflective, which we have set down 
with their respective cases, have been extracted from 
Corticellfs grammar; and all the others are of our 
own observation. We refrained from giving authority 
to them by examples here ; but the student will find 
them in a work of our own, which bears the title of 
" Dictionary of Peculiarities"'' 



The government of Verbs — continued. 

Having now treated of the verbs that govern nouns, 
we proceeed to speak of those that govern other verbs. 

RULE LXXXVI. 

One verb may govern another verb, that depends upon 
it, either in the infinitive, indicative, or subjunctive, 
as, io lo vedo venire, I see him coming ; io vedo che egli 
e venuto, I see that he is come ; voglio che tic sia con- 
tento, I wish you may be happy. In these examples 
venire is the infinitive, e venuto the indicative, tu sia 
the subjunctive, that are governed by vedo and voglio, 
verbs on which those three different moods depend. 

1. One verb governs another that depends on it, in 
the infinitive, whenever the subject of the verb finite 
extends to the infinitive also. 

B. Proem. Assai manifestamente posso comprendere, 
quello esser vero, che sogliono i savj dire, che sola la 
miseria e senza invidia ; I can indeed believe that that 



382 



OF THE GOVERNMENT OF VERBS. 



is really true, which wise men are wont to say, namely, 
that poverty alone is not envied. 

In the first part of this example comprendere is in the 
infinitive, because io, which is understood, is the subject 
of posso, and at the same time of comprendere ; and in 
like manner dire is in the infinitive, because savj is the 
subject of sogliono and dire. 

The infinitive, depending on the verb, may either 
have a preposition or not : as, io abhorro di far cid, I 
do not like to do it ; io mi affretto a pariire, I hasten to 
go away ; or, io voglio leggere, I will read ; debbo 
parlare, I ought to speak. In these examples Jure and 
partire have the prepositions di and a before them; and 
leggere and parlare have none. 

The prepositions that precede the infinitive are di, a, 
da ; the latter, however, has but very few examples : 
as, non mi euro di vederlo, I do not care to see him ; 
egli va a pranzare seco lui, he is going to dine with him ; 
non ho nulla dafare^ I have nothing to do. 

As all rules upon this subject have been attended with 
no profit, we thought proper to subjoin the following list 
of the principal verbs, with their respective prepositions, 
in order that the learner, by referring to them when 
necessity requires, may, without much trouble, be made 
acquainted with them. 

Verbs governing the Infinitive with di before it. 



abborrir e to abhor 

accadere to happen 

accennare ...Jo show 

accertare to assure 

accomandare..^o recommend 
accordare ....to grant 

accorgersi to perceive 

affliggersi to grieve 

ammonire .... to admonish 

annojarsi to be weary 

ardire to dare 

arrischiare > . 
arrischiarsi \*> venture 



assicurare ...Jo assure 
astenersi ....to abstain from 

avvedersi to perceive 

attentarsi to attempt 

avventurare ..to venture 

avvertire to admonish 

avvisare to inform 

badare to mind 

biasimare ....to blame 

bramare to wish 

cessare to cease 

cercare to seek 

chiedere to ask 



OF THE GOVEENMENT OF VEIIBS. 



383 



commendare .do commend 
comandare....£o command 
commettere .Jo commit 
conchiiidere } 

or > to conclude 

concludere 3 
concedere ...Jo grant 
contenersi ...Jo refrain oneself 
consigliare .. .Jo advise 

contare to reckon 

contentarsi ...to consent 

convenire to agree 

credere to believe 

curarsi to cure 

degnarsi to deign 

deliberare • • . . to deliberate 
determinare .Jo determine 

differire to defer 

diiettarsi to delight in 

dimandare ...Jo ask 
dimenticarsi ..to forget 

dire to tell 

dispensare ...Jo dispense 
dispiacere ...Jo dislike 

dolersi ] t0 8 rieve > to be 

> sorry 

domandare....2o ask 

dubitare to doubt 

disperare to despair 

evitare to avoid 

esitare to hesitate 

favorire to be so good as 

fermarsi to stop 

f ingere to pretend 

finire to finish 

fissare.... to fix 

giurare to swear 

giudicare to judge 

gloriarsi to pride oneself 

go der e to delight in 

guardarsi to beware 

irnnlaginarsi ..to imagine 

impedire to hinder 

imporre to command 

ingegnarsi ...Jo endeavour 

incaricare ... Jo charge 



incaricarsi.. \to take upon one- 

) self 
increscere ...Jo be sorry 

inf 1 ngersi to pretend 

intendere to understand 

lamentarsi ...Jo complain 

lasciare to cease 

lusingarsi to flatter oneself 

mancare to fail 

nieditare to meditate 

meritare to deserve 

minacciare ....to threaten 

mostrare to shew 

negare to refuse 

negligentare ..to neglect 
obbligare .. ) , l7 . 
obbli|arsi.. l i0 °Mge 

offrirsi to offer 

ordinare to order 

omettere to omit 

osare to dare 

parere to appear 

pensare to think 

pentirsi to repent 

permettere ..to permit 

piacere to like 

persuadere.. ..to persuade 

pregare to entreat 

prescrivere.. .Jo prescribe 
presumere ...Jo presume 
pretendere.. ..to pretend 
procurare ...Jo try 
professare ...Jo profess 

proibire to prohibit 

proporre to propose 

promettere ...to promise 
ricordarsi ...Jo remember 
ricusare to refuse 

rimproverare ? , 7 

. / . > to reproac/z 

rmtacciare .. S 

rincrescere....£o be sorry 

ringraziare . . . . to thank 

riprendere ...Jo reprove 

risolvere to resolve 

scegliere to choose 

scommettere..£o bet 

scongiurare .Jo conjure 



384 



OF THE GOVERNMENT OF VERBS. 



sconsigliare ..to dissuade 

scordarsi to forget 

scusarsi to excuse oneself 

sembrare to seem 

sospirare to sigh 

sostenere to support 

sperare to hope 



svolgere ......to dissuade 

supplicare ....to entreat 

tentare .to try 

temere to fear 

tremare, to tremble 

tralasciare ....to desist 
vergognarsi ..to be ashamed 



Verbs governing an Infinitive with a before it. 



acc^ndere ....to excite 
accompagnare/o accompany 
accostumarsi .to accustom 

adescare to allure 

affrettare. ...Jo hasten 

agevolare to facilitate 

ajutare to assist 

allettare to allure 

attendere to apply oneself 

andare to go 

apprestarsi.. .. to prepare oneself 

aspirare to aspire 

animare to animate 

arrivare to arrive 

avere .....to have 

avvezzarsi to accustom oneself 

avezzare to accustom 

cominciare ...to begin 
condannarc.^o condemn 

condurre to conduct 

consentire ...Jo consent 
continuare....£o continue 

convenire to agree 

costringere ...to oblige 

darsi to addict oneself 

esortare to exhort 

eccitare to excite 

consigliare ...Jo advise 

giungere to arrive 

occuparsi to occupy oneself 



offrirsi to offer oneself 

pensare to think about 

condescen- ) . , , 

a»~~ i 1° condescend 

dere $ 

esporsi to expose oneself 

disporre to dispose 

farsi to become 

impegnarsi ...Jo pledge 

incorraggire .Jo encourage 

incitare to incite 

indurre to induce 

insegnare to teach 

intraprendereio undertake 

mettersi to set about 

obbligare to oblige 

obbligarsi .... to oblige oneself 

occuparsi .....to occupy oneself 

ostinarsi to persist 

persuadere.. .Jo persuade 

principiare..../o begin 

riuscire to succeed 

seguire ) to continue •, or 

seguitare... $ to follow 

spingere to urge 

stentare to work hard 

supplicare ...Jo entreat 

tendere.. to tend 

torn are to return 

venire ...Jo come 

prepararsi .... to prepare oneself 



Verbs governing an Infinitive without a Preposition 
preceding it. 



bisogna must 

dovere ought 

fare to do 



intendere to intend 

lasciare to let 

sapere to know how 



OF THE GOVERNMENT OF VERBS. 385 



sol ere to be accustomed 

sen tire to hear 

potere to be able 

udire to hear 



volere to will 

vedere to see 

convenire to agree 



To which may be added osare to dare, par ere to 
seem, sembrare to seem, and a great many more. But 
these belong to the figurative construction, rather than 
to the regular. 

Besides these verbs, which we have set down govern- 
ing different cases and infinitives with different preposi- 
tions, there are a great many more ; but these we thought 
necessary and fully sufficient for our purpose, without 
increasing the bulk of the volume. 

2. We observed that one verb governs another in 
the infinitive, whenever the subject of the two verbs is 
the same ; but we now say, that if the subject of the 
two verbs be different, the second verb is to be put 
either in the indicative or in the subjunctive with eke 
before it, as — 

B. 4. % So io bene che stanotte . . .egli ne porto Tanima 
mia ; I know well that last night he carried away my 
soul. Porto is in the indicative. 

B. 3. 1. Io mi credo, che le suore sien tutte a dormire ; 
I think that the nuns are all asleep. Sien for sieno is in 
the subjunctive. 

Sometimes, by a peculiarity belonging to our lan- 
guage, we omit che, as — 

B. 3. 7. Io credo... egli se n' ando disperato ; I do 
believe that he went away in despair. That is, credo 
cK egli se rt andd. 

B. 5. 6. Temendo non gli avvenisse quello die gli av~ 
venne ; fearing it would happen to him what really did. 
That is, temendo che non gli avvenisse. 

But this belongs rather to the figurative construction, 
and should not be imitated until the learner is well ac- 
quainted with that part of grammar. 

It is not easy for the English student to know how to 



S8fi OF THE GOVERNMENT OF VERBS. 

use these two modes, viz. the indicative and the sub- 
junctive, because the same verb may sometimes govern 
both moods, as has been seen in the above examples, 
credo che egli se rf ando, credo che le snore sieno. But 
if he gives due attention to the following observations, 
he will overcome the difficulty which attends the subject 
in question. 

1. Every verb expressing its action in a direct, positive, 
and independent manner, requires the following verb to 
be put in the indicative ; as credo che vi e tin solo Dio, 
I believe there is one God ; vedo cK egli si comporta 
bene*, I see that he behaves well ; so cti egli il brama, I 
know that he wishes for it. In these examples, e, com- 
porta, brama, are verbs in the indicative, because credo, 
vedo, so, are the principal verbs expressing their action 
in a direct and positive manner. This being very clear, 
there is no need of examples of more authority. 

2. Every verb preceded by the negative non, or ex- 
pressive of command, desire, displeasure, doubt, entreaty, 
fear, flattery, hope, pleasure, prohibition, shame, or will, 
requires the following verb to be put in the subjunctive, 
which is to be placed in the same tense as the first 
verb is. 

Of Command. Fiorentino. — E comando a' Jhnti die 
Giannotto fosse ubbidito ; and he ordered his servants 
that Giannotto should be obeyed. Fosse the past tense 
of the subjunctive, governed by comando past tense of 
the principal verb. 

Of Desire. Bembo. — Solo desidero, cti egli lo dia in 
cur a ad alcuno de* suoi conduttori; I only desire that 
he will put him under the care of any of his con- 
ductors. Dia the present tense of the subjunctive, 
governed by desidero the present tense of the principal 
verb. 

Of Doubt. Tolomei. — La quale modestia . . . dubito 
che non gli sia dannosa ; which modesty, I doubt, may 
be hurtful to him. Sia the present of the subjunctive, 



OF THE GOVERNMENT OF VERBS. 387 

governed by dabito the present tense of the principal 
verb. 

Of Entreaty. Bembo. — E priegovi die vi degniate di 
farmi vedere ; and I beg you will deign to shew me. 
Degniate the present of the subjunctive, governed by 
priego the present of the principal verb. 

These examples are sufficient for the information of 
the learner ; but if any one wishes to meet with further 
instances, he will find them in our Dictionary of Pe- 
cidiarities. 

If the principal verb be in the future, the present of 
the subjunctive is to be used ; as, bisognera cheio faccia, 
it will be necessary for me to do ; le dispiacera che vol 
partiate, she will be sorry that you go away. Faccia 
and partiate are in the present tense of the subjunctive, 
because bisognera and dispiacera are in the future. 

It is to be observed that the subjunctive is not only 
governed by verbs, as has been seen above, but also by 
other words or parts of speech, such as comparatives 
and superlatives accompanied with relatives, and con- 
junctions, all of which will be found in their respective 
places. 

Construction of the Infinitive. 

In the second part of this grammar, page 115, we 
spoke of the infinitive and its inflexions ; now we have 
to make some particular observations concerning its con- 
struction. 



RULE LXXXVII. 

The infinitive is commonly governed by an accusa- 
tive, which is to precede it. 

B. 5. 2. La giovane udendo lui con gli altri esser 
morto, lungamente pianse ; on hearing that he and his 
companions were dead, the young woman was very much 
grieved. Lui the accusative case of egli, governing 
essere the infinitive. 

s2 



88& OF THE GOVERNMENT OF VERBS. 

B. 3. 9. Conoscendo lei non esser di legnaggio che aUa 
sua nobilta bene stesse, tutto sdegnoso disse ; as he knew 
she was of a condition too low for his quality, he said 
with disdain. Lei, the accusative case of ella, governs 
the infinitive essere. 

But this accusative becomes a nominative, when it is 
put after the infinitive. 

B. 5. 2. Ma non bastandogli d? esser egli, £ suoi com- 
pagni in brieve tempo divenuti ricchissimi ; but he and 
his friends not being satisfied with their having become 
very rich in a short time, Egli instead of lui, because 
it is put after the infinitive essere. 

B. 5. 1. Si vedeva delta sua speranza privare, nella 
quale portava, che se Ormisda non la prendesse, ferma- 
mente doverla avere egli ; he saw himself now deprived 
of the hope which he entertained of marrying her him- 
self, if Ormisda refused. Egli instead of lui, because it 
is put after the infinitive avere. 

It is to be observed that as the accusative may be 
distinguished in the personal pronouns only, (because 
the accusative of all nouns and other pronouns is the 
same as their nominative), we have laid down those 
examples in which the accusative of personal pronouns is 
observed. Me me, te thee, however, though accusa- 
tives of the personal pronouns io I, tic thou, have not 
frequently been used by good writers, considering them 
as words rather unpleasant to the ear, and not congenial 
to the Italian language. 



Nature and Construction of the Gerund. 

The gerund, like the infinitive, has no more than one 
termination, which is o, and it is formed by changing are 
of the infinitive of the first conjugation into ando, thus, 
amare, amandp ; and by changing ere and ire of the 
infinitive of the second and third conjugation into endo ; 
thus, from temere and Jinire, temendo and finendo are 
formed. Now, as it has but one termination, it must be 



OF THE GOVERNMENT OF VERBS. 389 

accompanied with another verb, which shews the time of 
its action : as, partendo io, gliel diedi, as I was going away 
I gave it to him ; partendo io, gliel do, in going away 
I give it to him ; partendo io, gliel daro, when I go 
away I shall give it to him. In the first example 
partendo is past, in the second it is present, and in 
the third it is future, as the different tenses of the 
verb import. 

RULE LXXXVIII. 

The gerund may either be the subject (as it were) of 
the phrase or part of it, or be dependant on another 
verb. 

When k is the subject, it is accompanied with the 
nominative case, which commonly follows it. 

B. 3. 4. E quivi avere una tavola motto larga in 
guisa, eke stando tu in pie* vi possi le reni appoggiare ; 
there you must place a very large table, which is to be 
fixed in such a manner that as you stand upon your feet 
the small of your back must lean upon it. Tu, the 
nominative of stando, is put after it. 

B. 9. 7. Essendo Talano con questa sua Margherita 
in contado, ad una possessione, dormendo egli, gli parve 
in sogno di vedere la sua donna andar per un bosco 
assai hello ; as Talano and Margherita were at a coun- 
try-house of his, he dreamed he saw her walking through 
a pleasant grove. Talano and egli, nominatives, are put 
after the gerunds essendo and dormendo, as subjects of 
the sentence or phrase. 

When the gerund is dependant on another verb, or 
rather when it is governed by another verb, it is accom- 
panied with an accusative case (as its subject), which is 
to precede it. 

B. 4. 10. Trovato Ruggieri dormendo, lo ''ncomincio a 
tentare ; and finding Ruggieri asleep, she began to try 
to wake him. 

B. 6. End. Quivi trovarono i giovani giucando, dove 



890 OF THE GOVERNMENT OF VERBS. 

lasciati gli avieno ; there they found the young men at 
play, where they had left them. 

In these examples, Ruggieri and giovani, accusative 
cases, are the subjects of dorrnendo and giucando ; as if it 
were, trovato Ruggieri chedormiva, trovarono i giovani 
che giucavano. 

1. Sometimes the gerund, accompanied with the nomi- 
native case, is put after it. 

B. 3. 5. II Zima dona a M. Francesco Vergellesi un 
suo pallqfreno, e per quello con licenza di lui parla alia 
sua donna, ed ella tacendo, egli in persona di lei ris- 
ponde ; Zima makes a present of a fine horse to M. 
Francesco Vergellesi, upon condition that he should have 
the liberty of speaking to his wife, and she making him 
no reply, he answers for her himself. 

In this example, ella, a nominative, precedes the ge- 
rund tacendo ; but this is not to be imitated unless there 
happen to be two gerunds with two different nomina- 
tives in the same sentence. In which case one gerund 
may be put before its nominative, and the other after it, 
in order to avoid that sameness in composition which on 
all occasions is disagreeable to the ear. 

B. 4. 2. So to bene che 'stanotte vegnendo egli a me, e 
io avendogli faita la vostra ambasciata, egli ne porta 
subitamente Vanima mia ; I know very w T ell that as he 
came, and I told him your message, he directly carried 
away my soul. Egli and io, nominative cases, are put one 
after and the other before the gerund ; and it certainly 
sounds better than if the author had said vegnendo egli 
a me, e avendogli iojhtta, &c. 

2. Gerunds have the same government over nouns 
and other verbs, as the verbs from which they are 
derived. 

B. 10. 2. Con alcuna cosa dandogli, donde egli possa 
secondo lo stato suo vivere ; by giving him something on 
which he might live according to his own condition. 



OF THE GOVERNMENT OF VERBS. 391 

Dando, coming from dare, governs the accusative alcana 
cosa, because dare governs the accusative. 

B. 4. 7. Forte desiderando, e non attentando di far piu 
avanti ; being extremely desirous, and not daring, to go 
farther. Desiderando and attentando, being derived from 
desiderare and attentare or attentarsi, govern the infini- 
tive fare with di before it, because those two verbs 
govern the same. 

3. Gerunds, accompanied with an oblique case of per- 
sonal pronouns, which are otherwise called conjunctive 
and relative pronouns, and also by the reflective pronoun 
si, commonly make one word with them, as we have 
said in some of the above examples, avendogli fatta 
la vostra ambasciata, con alcuna cosa dandogli, and 
also, (Bocc. 4. 5.), Veggendolo to consumare come si fa la 
neve al sole ; as I saw him melting, like snow exposed 
to the sun. 

4. Gerunds are very frequently accompanied with 
some particular verbs, such as, andare, venire, ritornare, 
mandare, trovare, stare, &c. which are used as auxiliary 
verbs, and then they have different significations. 

They are accompanied with andare, venire, ritor- 
nare, and other verbs of motion, to point out an action 
which is continuing whilst one is, was, or shall be 
going, coming, returning, &c. 

B. 1. 4. La quale andecvaper gli campi certe erbe rac- 
cogliendo ; who was gathering herbs in the field. 

B. 8. 8. Or con una parola, ed or con uri altra, su- 
per lo Mugnone infino alia porta a San Gallo il ven- 
nero lapidando ; and sometimes saying one word, and 
sometimes another, they kept pelting him with stones 
from Mugnone to the gate of St. Gallo. 

In these two examples, andava shows that the person 
was -walking whilst she gathered the herbs, and ven- 
nero, that they were following and at the 3ame time 
pelting the other. These expressions are essentially 
peculiar to the Italian language. 



S92 SYNTAX OF PARTICIPLES. 

They are accompanied with stare, to show an action 
which is, was, and shall be continuing without intermis- 
sion till it is interrupted, as — 

Che state facendo ? What are you doing ? Io stava 
scrivendo qucmd? egli venne ; I was writing when he 
came. 

They are accompanied with rnandare, and they stand 
for infinitives with the preposition a or ad before them. 

B. 10. 4. E rnandotta pregando, die le dovesse piacere 
di venire ajar lieti i gentiluomini delta sua presenza ; 
and he sent to her, desiring her to favour his guests with 
her company ; that is, mandolla a pregare. 

B. 1. 5. In piil parti per lo mondo rnando cercando, 
se in cid alcun si trovasse, che ajuto o consiglio gli 
desse ; he sent to several parts of the world in search 
of one who could give him help or advice ; that is, 
rnando a cercare. 



SYNTAX OF PARTICIPLES. 

Participles, as we observed page 212, are of two 
sorts, one ending in ante and ente, which is called the 
present participle, and the other ending in ato, uto 9 and 
ito, which is called the past participle. There are also 
other past participles of irregular terminations, such as, 
atto, etto, esso, &c. See the conjugation of irregular 
verbs in the first part. 

RULE LXXXIX. 

Participles present, being a kind of adjectives, are to be 
accompanied with a noun substantive or pronoun, which 
is to be an oblique case, or rather to say a noun or pro- 
noun governed by a verb. 

B. 10. 7. II re sifece chiamare un giovane, e postegii 
certe anella in mano, a lui non recusante difarlofece 
sposare la Lisa ; the king sent for a young gentleman, 
and putting a ring into his hand, caused him not unwil- 



SYNTAX OF PAKTICIPLES. 393 

lingly to espouse Eliza. Recusante a participle pre- 
sent, accompanied with a lui a pronoun in the dative 
which is governed hyfece sposare. 

B. 4. 3. Folco da dolor vinto, tirata fuori una spada, 
lei in vano merce addomandante uccise ; Folco, being 
overcome by grief, drew his sword and stabbed her to 
the heart, she begging in vain for mercy. Addoman- 
dante, a participle present, is accompanied with lei a pro- 
noun in the accusative, which is governed by uccise. 

B. 9. 10. Alle donne aspettanti si rivolse e disse ; 
he addressed himself to the ladies who were waiting, 
and said. Aspettanti, a participle present, is accom- 
panied with alle donne in the dative, which is governed 
by si rivolse. 

Participles present are sometimes found in the nomi- 
native in good writers, but as it is not much approved 
of we forbear giving examples, and advise learners not 
to use them in the nominative case ; and if there happens 
to be any in the said nominative, it is better to make use 
of the gerund instead ; as, le donne piangenti dissero ; 
the women that were crying, said. Le donne piangendG 
dissero, is better. 

Participles present are frequently found in good 
writers as ablatives absolute, that is, independent on any 
verb, and standing, as it were, alone in a discourse. 

B. 3. 2. II quale, siccome savio, mai, vivente il re, non 
lo scoperse ; who, being a wise man, kept it to himself as 
long as the king lived. 

B. 5. 1. Non erano ancora quattro ore compiute,poiche 
Cimone i Rodlani avea lasciati, quando, sopravvegnente 
la notte, con essa surse un tempo fierissimo ; in about four 
hours from Cymon's parting with the Rhodians, night 
came upon them, and with it a most violent tempest. 

But this way is not much used at present, and instead 
of vivente il re and sopravvegnente la notte, we should 
say mentre che visse il re or vivendo il re, and soprav- 
vegnendo la notte* 

s3 



894 SYNTAX OF PARTICIPLES. 

There are, however, many of these participles present 
which are commonly used in conversation as well as in 
composition, such as seguente^ vegnente, durante, pre- 
cedente ; and we say, il d\ seguente, the following day ; 
la mattina vegnente, the following morning ; durante la 
guerra, during the war ; la sera precedente, the preced- 
ing evening. But such expressions, being confirmed 
by use, may very properly be employed when necessity 
requires. 

Of the Participle Past. 

The participle past is either active or passive ; when 
it is active it is conjugated with the verb avere^ and 
when it is passive it is conjugated with essere ; but before 
we lay down rules for its construction, it is necessary 
that we should speak of the auxiliary verbs with which 
these participles are to be accompanied. 



RULE XC. 

Verbs active, having an objective case, or an object 
acted upon, are conjugated with avere ; as, ho amato la 
virtu, I have loved virtue ; egli aveva battuto Pietro, 
he had beaten Peter ; abbiamo letto i libri, we have read 
the books. Virtu, Pietro, libri, are the objects acted 
upon, and therefore ho, aveva, abbiamo, and not sono, 
era, siamo. 

Sometimes the verb active has not an object acted 
upon, but as it is understood, its auxiliary verb is avere, 
as we said ; as, io ho letto per tre giorni, I read three 
whole days ; ella ha sernpre amato in vita sua, she has 
always loved in her life ; that is to say, ho letto libri, 
gazzette, &c. ella ha amato la virtu, il giuoco, &c. 



RULE XCI. 



Verbs passive, or verbs of which the subject is acted 
upon by the object, are conjugated with essere ; as, to 



SYNTAX OF PARTICIPLES. 305 

sono amata da Paolo, I am loved by Paul ; ella e statu 
battuta dal marito, she has been beaten by her husband. 
Da Paolo, dal marito, are the objects acting upon io 
and ella the subjects of sono amata, e stata battuta. 

Sometimes verbs passive, instead of essere, are conju- 
gated, only in their simple tenses, with the following 
verbs, viz. venire, to come ; restare or rimanere, to 
remain ; vedersi, to see one's self. 

Buommattei. Ma siasi una lingua nobile, poco U 
gioverd mentre ch 'ella non venga usata dafamosi scrii- 
tori ; but let a language be noble, it will be of little use 
if it is not adopted by celebrated writers. Venga for 
$ia. 

Goldoni. Voi non sapete da chi mi vengano som- 
ministrate ; you do not know by whom they are given 
to me. Vengano for siano. 

Goldoni. Se non mi sard lecito di sposarlo, procurers 
almeno cite resti impiegato in questa cittd ; if I am not 
allowed to marry him, I shall at least endeavour that he 
may be employed in this city. Resti for sia. 

Boccalini. Egli rimase maravigliato delta brutta in- 
venzione ; he was astonished at the bad invention. Ri- 
mase i'orfu. 

Soave. E il giovane infelice si vide tosto da una 
squadra di satelliti circondato e tratto prigione ; and 
the unhappy youth was soon surrounded by a squadron 
of guards and taken to prison. Si vide for fu. 



RULE XCII. 

Verbs neuter, or verbs having no objective case ? espe- 
cially those which denote motion, such as, andare to go, 
venire to come, ritornare to return, scendere to des- 
cend, svaniire to vanish, &c. are conjugated with es- 
sere ; as, io sono andato, I have gone ; tu sei venuto, 
thou art come ; egli e ritornato, he is returned ; noi 
sciamo scesi, we have come down ; voi siete svaniti, you 
have disappeared. 



396 SYNTAX OF PARTICIPLES. 

There are some, however, that are conjugated either 
with essere or avere, and others again only with avere. 

Those that may be conjugated with both avere and 
essere, are dimorare, cavalcare, correre, &c. 

B. 2. 5. Li quali e per lo caldo, e per che corsi erano 
dietro ad alcuno ; who, on account of the heat, and of 
their having run after somebody. Correre with essere. 

B. 7. 8. Non ci tornai io, avendo cor so dietro air 
amante tuo ? Did I not go back thither, having run 
after your lover ? Correre with avere. 

B. 5. 3. Ne furono guari piil di due miglia cavalcati ; 
they had ridden no more than two miles. Cavalcare 
with essere. 

B. 3. 4. E quando con lui alquanto dimorata fossi; 
and when I have stayed some time with him. Dimorare 
with essere. 

Those that are conjugated with avere only, are gri- 
dare to cry, mugghiare to bellow, peccare to sin, 
dormire to sleep, piangere to weep, ridere to laugh, 
giuocare to play, and a great many more of all sorts, 
which will be found marked in the lists included in this 
grammar. 

Potere, to be able, and volere, to be willing, require a 
particular observation. They are conjugated with the 
verb avere when the infinitive which follows them is a 
verb active, and with essere when the infinitive is a verb 
neuter conjugated with essere; or, rather to say, these 
two verbs are conjugated with the same auxiliary verb 
which is assigned to the infinitive, expressed or under- 
stood, that follows them. 



*? 



B. 3. 1. II castaldo gli mise innanzi certi ceppi, che 
Nuto non aveva potuto spezzare ; the steward put before 
him some pieces of wood, which Nuto was not able to 
cut. 

B. 2. 4. E bevendo piU, che non avrebbe voluto ; and 
drinking more than he was willing to drink. 

In these examples, spezzare an infinitive expressed, 

\ 



SYNTAX OF PARTICIPLES. 397 

and here understood, being active, require potere and 
volere, by which they are governed, to be conjugated 
with avere. 

B. 3. 4. E quando ella si sarebbe voluta dormire ; and 
when she had a mind to sleep. 

B. 3. 7. Essendo gia la meta della notte andata, non 
s^era ancor potuto Tedaldo addormentare ; and Te- 
daldo had not yet fallen asleep, although it was after 
midnight. 

In these examples, dormirsi and addormentarsi, being 
verbs neuter whose auxiliary is essere, require potere 
and volere, by which they are governed, to be conju- 
gated with essere. 



RULE XCIII. 

Verbs reflective, or neuter passive, or those verbs 
which end in arsi, ersi, irsi, in the infinitive, are always 
conjugated with the verb essere; as, io mi sono scor* 
dato, I have forgotten ; ci siamo dimenticati, we have 
forgotten ; si sono accorti, they have perceived. 

With respect to those verbs which are naturally 
active, but become reflective or passive by means of the 
particles, mi, ti, si, ci, vi, si, some grammarians are of 
opinion that either avere or essere is the auxiliary verb 
with which they are to be conjugated. With some 
verbs this rule might answer, but with others it will not 
hold good. As, for example, were we to conjugate 
uccidersi axi&jerirsi verbs reflective, coming from ucci- 
dere and Jerire verbs active, we might say, mi sarei 
ucciso, or mi avrei ucciso, I could have killed myself ; 
egli si eferito, or egli si ha ferito, he stabbed himself. 
But it would produce a disagreeable sound to the ear 
were we to say, mi ho contentato, I contented myself, or 
I am satisfied ; mi avevo addormentato, I had fallen 
asleep ; although contentarsi and addormentarsi come 
from contentare to satisfy, and addormentare to lull 
asleep, both active. 



398 SYXTAX OF PARTICIPLES. 

We cannot account for such a distinction, unless it is 
that contentare and addormentare, although active, par- 
take, if we are allowed to say so, of the nature of the 
neuter. However it may be, as no other reason may be 
assigned, we content ourselves to set down a rule on this 
subject, which attention in reading writers of note has 
made us acquainted with, and which, if well examined, 
canuot but give satisfaction to learners. 

A verb, then, which is naturally active, becoming 
reflective or passive by the reflective particles, mi, ti, si, 
ci, vi, si, which may be rendered myself, thyself, him- 
self, herself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves, is to be 
conjugated with essere ; but if those particles are not 
reflective but conjunctive pronouns, signifying my, thy, 
his, her, our, your, their, the verb in question is con- 
jugated with avere, as may be seen in the following 
examples. 

B. 5. 10. Se io non avessi voluto essere al rnondo, 
mi sarei fatta monaca ; had I not been disposed to enjoy 
the world, I would have shut myself up in a monastery. 

B. 3. 2. E prima in una stiff a (essendo) lavatosi bene 
nella gran sala si nascose ; and having washed himself 
well, he hid himself in the large room. 

In these two examples, mi and si are reflective pro- 
nouns, signifying myself, himself; hence the verb essere, 
with farsi and lavarsi, sarei fatta, and lavatosi in which 
essendo is understood. 

B. 3. 3. Horn mi posto in cuore di far glide alcuna 
volta dire a miei parenti ; I resolved to let him know 
by means of my brothers. 

"B. 8. 7. Io avrei di te scritie cose, che...di te stessa 
vergognandoti, ti avresti cavati gli occhj ; I would have so 
mauled you with my pen, that you, being ashamed of 
yourself, would have torn your eyes out. 

B. 10. 9. Messer Torello avendosi Tanello di lei messo 
in bocca; Mr. Torello having put her ring in his 
mouth. 



SYNTAX OF PARTICIPLES, 399 

In these three examples, mi, ti, si, are conjunctive 
pronouns, signifying in English my, thy, his, as pos- 
sessive pronouns ; hence, porre, cavare, metier e, are 
conjugated with avere, hommi posto, ti avresii cavati, 
avendoti messo. 

It has been asserted that in such examples as the 
above three, the verb avere is put instead of essere, and 
that essere is to be the proper auxiliary verb ; but we 
think that it is better to use avere than essere, and every 
one will think as we do, when he, after turning those 
phrases thus, ho posto nel cuore mio, avresti cavati gli 
occlij tuoi, avendo messo Tanello di lei nella bocca sua, 
will perceive that it is mio, tuoi, sua, in English my, thy, 
his, which are changed into conjunctive mi, ti, si, and not 
reflective pronouns. Modern writers and well educated 
Italians, however, do, unaware of the stated observa- 
tions, use the verb essere with such verbs, both in a 
familiar style and common conversation. 



RULE XCIV. 

Impersonal verbs of all sorts are commonly conjugated 
with the verb essere ; as, e tuonato, it has thundered ; 
era piovuto, it had rained ; si e detto, it has been said ; 
si erafatto, it w r as done ; mi e dispiaciuto, I am sorry ; 
gli era rincresciuto, he was sorry. 



RULE XCV. 

CONTINUATION OF THE PARTICIPLE. 

The past participle, whether it is derived from a verb 
passive, neuter, or reflective, being conjugated with the 
auxiliary verb essere, is to agree with its subject or nomi- 
native case in gender and number. 

B. 3. 4. Voi no?i siete laprima, ne sarete V ultima, la 
quale e ingannata; you are not the first, nor will you be 
the last, that is imposed upon. Ingannata, participle 



400 SYNTAX OF PARTICIPLES. 

passive of the feminine gender, is made to agree with voi 
a pronoun referring to a woman. 

B. 8. 1. lo non so se tu f hai posto in mente, come noi 
siarno tenute strette ; I do not know whether you have 
remarked that we are kept here in strict confinement. 
Tenute, a participle passive of the feminine gender and 
plural, is made to agree with noi a pronoun referring to 
women. 

B. 10. 9. Ed essendo gia terza, ed essi alia citta per- 
venuti, avvisando d" essere al miglior albergo inviati, con 
Messer Torello alle sue case pervennero, dove gia ben 
cinqaanta de } maggior cittadini eran venuti per riceverli; 
and they having arrived at the city about the third hour 
of the day, whilst they supposed that M. Torello would 
take them to the best inn, they were accompanied to his 
own house, whither about fifty of the principal persons 
of the city were come in order to welcome them. Per- 
venuti and venuti, both participles neuter of the mascu- 
line gender and plural number, are made to agree, one 
with essi a pronoun referring to men, and the other with 
cinquanta de* maggior cittadini. 

B. 3. 3. Ed essendosi accorta che costui usava molto 
con un religioso ; and perceiving that he was well ac- 
quainted with a certain friar. Accorta, a participle 
reflective of the feminine gender, is made to agree with 
ella a pronoun referring to a woman. 

Verbs neuter conjugated with avere require their par- 
ticiple to be indeclinable ; that is to say, the participle is 
always to end in o ; as, ho parlato, ho dormito, I have 
spoken, slept, &c. See next Rule. 

Verbs reflective, or rather those active verbs which 
become reflective through the medium of the particles 
mi, ti, si, &c, and which we said were to be conjugated 
with avere, but that are often found with essere, having 
another objective case besides mi, ti, si, &c, require 
their participle should be either indeclinable or declina- 
ble. When indeclinable it is to end in o, when declina- 
ble it is to agree with its objective case. 



SYNTAX OF PARTICIPLES. 401 

B. 4. 1. Tancredi principe di Salerno, fu signore 
assai umano, e di benigno ingegno, £ egli nello amoroso 
sangue nella sua vecchiezza non s* avesse le rnani brut- 
tate; Tancred, the prince of Salerno, was a most 
humane and generous personage, had he not, in his old 
age, imbrued his hands in a lover's blood. Bruttate, a 
participle of the feminine gender and plural number, is 
made to agree with mani a substantive of the feminine 
gender and plural. Boccaccio might as well have said 
bruttato. 

Here are other examples of a modern writer in which 
the participle is conjugated with essere. 

Ganganelli. Mi sono straccato gli occhj e le garnbe ; 
I wearied out my eyes and legs. Straccato indeclinable. 

Ganganelli. Protestando di non vi scordar giammai di 
questa pena che mi sono data per cercarvi ; protesting 
never to forget the trouble I had in seeking for you. 
Data, a participle of the feminine gender, is made to 
agree with pena a substantive feminine. 



OF PARTICIPLES ACCOMPANIED WITH THE AUXILIARY 

verb avere. 
RULE XCVI. 

The participle past of verbs conjugated with avere, 
w T hether they are neuter or active, whether they govern 
a case or not, is to be indeclinable ; that is to say, it is 
to end in o. 

B. 5. 5. Che aspetti tu oramai qui, poi kai cenato ? 
What are you waiting for, since you have had your 
supper ? 

B. 5. 5. Aveva ciascuna donna la novella delF usignuolo 
ascoltando tanto riso ; all the ladies had heartily laughed 
at the story of the nightingale. 

B. 5. 1. Adunque, s\ come noi nelle antiche istorie d£ 
Cipriani abbiamo gia letto; then, as we have read in 
the ancient histories of Cyprus. 



402 SYNTAX OF PARTICIPLES. 

B. 5. 6. Acciocche . . .Jbssero arsi, si come avevan meri- 
tato ; in order that they might be burnt, as they deserved. 

In these examples, cenato and riso, participles derived 
from verbs neuter, letto and meritato, participles derived 
from verbs active, are indeclinable, and this rule will 
never lead a student into errors. 

Sometimes, by way of elegance, the past participle 
derived from verbs active, not neuter, may be made to 
agree with the objective or accusative case, whether it is 
put before or after the verb by which it is governed. 

B. 10. 4. Poiclie Iddio ni Tia questa grazia conceduta; 
since God has granted me this favour. 

B. 3. 5. II quale avendo col cavaliere i patti rifermati 
. . . cosi comincio a dire ; who having reminded the knight 
of the conditions, thus began to speak. 

B. 3. 9. E la donna e la sua Jigliuola trovate assai 
poveramente, salutatele disse alia donna; and having 
found the lady and her daughter in an humble house, 
she said to the lady. 

In these examples, conceduta, rifermati, and trovate, 
are participles, which are made to agree with their accu- 
sative cases grazia, patti, donna e Jigliuola. 



OF PARTICIPLES ACCOMPANIED WITH RELATIVE AND 
CONJUNCTIVE PRONOUNS. 

RULE XCVII. 

The past participle of active verbs, conjugated with 
avere, being preceded by, or rather governing one of 
the following pronouns, che, cui, il quale, mi, ti, lo, la, 
ci, vi, li, gli, le, quail, quanti, in the accusative case, 
is declinable ; that is to say, it is to agree with the said 
pronoun in gender and number. 

B. 4. 1. E questodetto sife* dareTorciuoletto, nel quale 
era Vacqua, che il d\ davanti aveva fatta . . . e tutta la 
bevve ; and having thus spoken, she bade them reach the 



SYNTAX OF PARTICIPLES. 403 

vessel of water which she had prepared the day before, 
and drank it all off. Fatta, a participle of the feminine 
gender, is made to agree with che, an accusative referring 
to acqua a substantive feminine. 

B. 4. Proe. Elle son piu belle die gli agnoli dipinti 9 
che voi mi avete piil volte mostrati ; they are handsomer 
than the painted angels, which you have oftentimes 
shewn me. Mostrati, a participle of the masculine gender 
and plural number, is made to agree with che, an accusa- 
tive referring to agnoli a substantive masculine and 
plural. 

B. 10. 9. Messer Torello comincio a guar dare, e vide 
quelle (vesti) che al Saladino aveva la sua donna donate ; 
Mr. Torello soon cast his eyes upon those which his lady 
had given to Saladin. Donate, a participle of the 
feminine gender and plural number, is made to agree 
with che, an accusative referring to quelle vesti a sub- 
stantive feminine and plural. 

B. 5. 9. II quale cos\ fatta donna, e cui egli cotanto 
amata avea, per moglie vedendosi ; and he being united 
in marriage with a lady whom he had so passionately 
loved. Amata, a participle of the feminine gender, is 
made to agree with cui an accusative referring to 
donna, 

B. 10. 9. II quale infino nella puerizia io cominciai ad 
amare ed ho poi sempre sommamente amato; whom I 
began to love in my childhood, and have loved exceed- 
ingly ever since. Amato, a participle of the mascu- 
line gender, is made to agree with il quale a relative 
masculine. 

B. 3. 6. Tu sei stata con colei, la quale . ..tu hai . . . 
ingannata ; you have been with her whom you have de- 
ceived. Ingannata, a participle of the feminine gender, is 
made to agree with la quale a relative feminine. 

B. 5. 9. Io sono venuta a ristorarti d£ danni, li quali 
tu hai gia avuti per me ; I am come to make you some 
recompence for what you formerly did on my account. 
Avuti, a participle of the masculine gender and plural 



404? SYNTAX OF PARTICIPLES. 

number, is made to agree with li quali a relative mas- 
culine and plural. 

B. 3. 6. E noil so a che io mi tengo, che io non mando 
per Ricciardo, il quale piu che se m' ha am at a ; and 1 see 
no reason why I should not send for Ricciardo, who once 
loved me passionately. Amata, a participle of the femi- 
nine gender, is made to agree with mi a pronoun 
feminine. 

B. 3. 3. II valente uomo si maraviglib, s\ come colui, che 
mai guatata non F aveva ; the honest man was much 
surprised, as he had never taken any notice of her. 

B. 10. 9. // Saladin . . . s 1 avvide che questo cavaliere 
aveva dubitato eft essi non avesser tenuto V invito, se 
quando gli trovo, invitati gli avesse ; the sultan perceived 
that that gentleman was apprehensive that they would not 
have accepted the invitation if he had invited them when 
he met with them. Invitati, a participle of the masculine 
gender and plural, is made to agree with gli, a pronoun 
masculine and plural. 

B. 5. 5. Se tujeri ci affliggesti, tu ci hai oggi tanto 
diliticate, che niuna meritamente di te si dee rammari- 
care ; if you gave us concern with your subject yesterday, 
you have delighted us so much to-day, that none of us 
can complain of you. Diliticate, a participle of the 
feminine gender and plural, is made to agree with ci a 
pronoun feminine and plural. 

B. 3. 6. Voi non siete la prima, ne sarete T ultima, la 
quale e ingannata, ne io v' ho ingannata ; you are not the 
first, nor will you be the last that is imposed upon, nor 
have I deceived you. Ingannata, a participle of the 
feminine gender and plural, is made to agree with vi a 
pronoun feminine and plural. 

We think the above examples are sufficient for the 
information of the student, and we have refrained from 
giving any with participles of the masculine gender and 
lingular number, because their termination is always in o. 

It is to be observed that the past participle is always 



SYNTAX OF PARTICIPLES. 405 

to agree with the above-mentioned particles, mi, ti, 
si, la, lo, li, &c. although it is not accompanied with 

avere. 

B. 3. 9. Sicuramente disse la gentil donna, ogni cosa 
che vi place, mi dite, che mai da me non vi troverete 
ingannata; the lady said, speak out freely, and you will 
certainly find I shall never deceive you. Ingannata, a 
participle feminine, is made to agree with vi a pronoun 
feminine, though it is not accompanied with avere. 

B. 3. 4. Ma quantunque bene la trovasse disposta a 
dover dare alV opera compimento, non si poteva trovar 
modo ; but although he found her disposed to a com- 
pliance, he could not contrive the means. Disposta, a 
participle feminine, is made to agree with la a pronoun 
feminine, although it is not accompanied with avere. 

B. 3. 3. La quale, o piacevoli donne, io raccontero . . . 
per far^i accorte ; which, kind ladies, I will relate to 
shew you. Accorte, a participle feminine and plural, is 
made to agree with vi a pronoun feminine and plural, 
though it is not accompanied with avere. 

OF PARTICIPLES FOLLOWED BY AN INFINITIVE WITHOUT 
A PREPOSITION. 

RULE XCVIII. 

The past participle, being accompanied by an infini- 
tive, is to be indeclinable, if the relative and conjunctive 
pronouns che, il quale, mi, ti, si, lo, la, gli, le, ci, vi, 
are the objective cases of the said infinitive. 

B. 5. 9. La donna, la quale il lungo vagheggiare, 
Tarmeggiare, le mattinate muovere non avevano potuto, 
mossero le affettuose parole ; the lady, whom his love, 
tournaments, and serenades, were not able to move, was 
affected by his tender words. 

B. 10. 8. II che se savj siete, lietamenie comporterete, 
perciocche se ingannare vi avessi voluto, sehernita ve la 
poteva lasciare ; if you are wise, you will take it in good 



406 SYNTAX OF PARTICIPLES. 

part, for had I been willing to deceive you, I could 
contemptuously have left her. 

B. 3. 1. II castaldo gli die da mangiare volentieri, ed 
appresso questo gli mise innanzi certi ceppi, che Nuto non 
aveva potuto spezzare ; the steward gave him something 
to eat, and afterwards put before him some pieces of 
wood, which Nuto could not cut. 

In these examples, potuto and voluto are indeclinable, 
because la quale, vi, and che, are the objective cases of 
muovere, ingannare, and spezzare. But if the relative 
and conjunctive pronouns are the objective cases of the 
participles, or rather the subject of the infinitive, the 
participle is to be declinable, that is, it is made to agree 
with the said pronouns che, il quale, mi, ii, si, &c. in 
gender and number. 

B. 9. 5. Or sapeva Bruno clii costei era s% come colui, 
che T aveva veduta venire ; now, Bruno knew who she 
was, as he had seen her coming. 

B. 5. 10. Di che Ercolano, che alquanto turbato con la 
moglie era, per do che gran pezza ci aveva fatti stare 
aW uscio . . .disse ; at which Ercolano, who was rather 
angry that his wife had made us wait some time at the 
door, said. 

B. 8. 1. Assai sono di que gli, che si sono stolti, che 
credono troppo bene, che come a una giovane e sopra il 
capo posta la benda bianca...ne piu senta de* feminili ap- 
petiti, se non come se di pietra Y avesse fatta divenire il 
farla monaca ; there are many people so simple as to 
imagine that after a young woman has put on the veil, 
she is no longer subject to the passions of her sex, as if, 
by becoming a nun, she were turned into stone. 

In these examples the participles veduta, fatti, and 
fatta, are made declinable, because the relative l\ which 
both times stands for la, and the conjunctive ci, are ob- 
jective cases of the said participles, and not of the infini- 
tives venire, stare, and divenire, which may be clearly 
seen if these phrases are turned thus, aveva veduta lei 



SYNTAX OF PARTICIPLES. 407 

venire, or veduto ehe ella veniva, avevafatti noi stare, or 
avevafatto che noi stessimo, avesse fatta lei divenire, or 
avesse fatto che ella divenisse. 

These are the rules laid down by grammarians with 
respect to the agreement of the participle, when followed 
by an infinitive without a preposition ; and we advise 
the learner to adhere strictly to them, as it is the only 
means of avoiding errors : and if he finds examples 
contrary to the above rules, (and there are many of 
that kind), he is to disregard them as incorrect^ and 
rather obsolete. 

RULE XCIX. 

ON THE AGREEMENT OF PARTICIPLES ACCOMPANIED 
WITH MORE SUBSTANTIVES THAN ONE, EITHER CON- 
NECTED BY THE CONJUNCTION e, OR SEPARATED BY 
THE PREPOSITION C0U. 

When the past participle governs or is governed by 
more substantives than one, either of the same or of 
different genders and numbers, it is made to agree with 
the nearest substantive, whether the participle in ques- 
tion precedes or follows them. 

B. 10. 5. II cavaliere udita la domanda e la proferta 
della donna seco propose; the gentleman, being made 
acquainted with the demand and proposal of the lady, 
resolved. Udita governing both substantives of the 
feminine gender domanda and proferta, is made to agree 
with the nearest to it. 

B. 10. 6. II quale poiche il giardin tutto, e la casa di 
Messer Neri ebbe veduta ; who, after he had seen 
the garden and house belonging to M. Neri. Veduta, 
governing giardino and casa, both substantives of dif- 
ferent genders, is made to agree with casa a substantive 
feminine nearest to it, and not with giardino a noun of 
the masculine gender. 

B. 10. % E smontato, tutto solo fa rnesso in unaxama- 
retta, ed i cavalli e tutto P arnese messo in salvo ; and 



408 SYNTAX OF PARTICIPLES. 

having alighted, he was led into a small room, and his 
horses and all his other effects were taken especial care 
of. Messo, being governed by cavalli and arnese, both 
substantives of the same gender but of different num- 
bers, is made to agree with arnese a substantive singular 
nearest to it, and not with cavalli plural. 

B. %. 9. E sentendo le donne i cavalieri nel palagio 
del conte radunati ; and on hearing that the ladies and 
gentlemen were in the counts palace. Radunati being 
governed by donne and eavalieri, both substantives of 
different genders, is made to agree with cavalieri, a sub- 
stantive masculine nearest to it, and not with donne. 

Sometimes the participle taken in the same accepta- 
tion as above, is made to agree with the farthest sub- 
stantive, but not equally correct. 

B. 10. 9. La donna e Y anella, e la corona avute dal 
nuovo sposo quivi lascio ; the lady left there the rings 
and the crown which she had received from her new 
husband. Avute is made to agree with anella a sub- 
stantive feminine plural, and not with corona its nearest 
substantive. 

The past participle having for its subjects more pro- 
nouns or substantives than one, which are separated from 
one another by con, may be made to agree with the first 
subject, or with all of them, that is to say, if the first 
subject is singular, and that preceded by con is plural, 
the participle may either be put in the singular or 
plural. 

B. 6. End. Essendosi Dioneo con gli altri giovani 
messo a giucare...Elisa disse; whilst Dioneus and the 
other gentlemen were playing, Eliza said. Messo is 
made to agree with the first subject Dioneo. 

B. 10. 6. II re co' suoi compagni rimontati a cavallo 
dl reale ostiere se ne tornarono ; the king, with his 
attendants, mounted his horse and returned to the 
royal palace. Rimontati is made to agree with re and 
compagni. 



SYNTAX OF ADVERBS. 409 

If one of the subjects is feminine, and the other mas- 
culine, the participle, when put in the plural, is to agree 
with the masculine ; but if they are all feminine, the 
participle is to be feminine. 

B. 5. 10. JEssendosila donna col giovane posti a tc&vola 
per cenare, ed ecco Pietro chiamd alt uscio ; the lady and 
the young man were no sooner seated at table, than 
Pietro knocked at the door. Posti is a masculine plural, 
though the subjects are of different genders. 

B. 2. 7. Io con due delle mie femmine, sopra il lido 
Y>ostefummo ; I and two of my attendants were placed 
upon the shore. Poste feminine plural, because io a 
pronoun, and due delle mie femmine^ are all feminine. 

To put a noun or pronoun governed by a preposition 
instead of the nominative case, seems rather strange; 
but it will seem otherwise when we consider that con is 
placed in the above phrases instead of the conjunction 
£, thus, Dioneo e gli altri giovani ; il re e i suoi com- 
pagni, &c. 

The same rule is to be used in regard to adjectives. 



RULE C. 

SYNTAX OF ADVERBS. 

Adverbs, like all other parts of speech, require an 
appropriate situation in the sentence, viz. — for the most 
part after the verb, frequently between the auxiliary 
verb and the participle, or between two participles, when 
both of them belong to the same auxiliary verb; as, 
egli parla bene* he speaks well; io ho ben dormito, I 
have slept well ; ella e stata molto stimata, she was much 
esteemed. 

Sometimes the same adverb is placed with propriety 
before the verb or after it ; between the auxiliary and 
the participle, or after them both, as in the following 
examples. 

T 



410 SYNTAX OF ADVERBS. 

B. 9. 6. II quale aperse la porta prestamente ; who 
quickly opened the door. 

B. 9. 7. II quale prestamente £ amentava alia gola 
di costei ; which, (a wolf), hastily seized her by the 
throat. x 

B. 9. 6. Pinuccio, tu sai bene come io sono agiato ; 
Pinuccio, you know very well how I am situated. 

B. 9- 8. Rispose Ciacca: ben sai, che io verfo; you 
know very well that I shall come, answered Ciacco. 

B. 9. 6. Io non ho mai poscia potuto dormire ; I could 
no longer sleep. 

B. 9. 6\ Pinuccio, io te V ho detto cento volte ; Pinuc- 
cio, I told it to you a hundred times. 

In these examples it is easily seen that the adverb, 
whether the same or a different word, is indiscriminately 
put before, in the middle, or at the end of a sentence, 
from which it appears that no determinate rule can be 
given for the placing of this part of speech on all occa- 
sions. The general rule may be of considerable use, 
but the easy flow and perspicuity of the phrase are the 
things which ought to be chiefly regarded. 

Remarks on some Adverbs of particular construction, 
Mai, Niente, Nulla. 

These adverbs, taken in a negative sense, may be 
used with or without the negative non, with this condi- 
tion, that when they are accompanied with non they are 
to follow the verb, and when without it, they are to pre- 
cede the verb. 

Passavanti. II diavolo disse una volta a San Macario, 
se tu vegghi, io mai donno> se tu £ affatichi operando, io 
non ho mai riposo ; the devil once said to St. Macarius, 
if you are always watching I never sleep ; and if you use 
all your efforts in your works, I never rest. 

B. 10. % II che V abate udendo... rispose, clC egli non 
ne volevajar niente; on hearing which, the abbot an- 
swered he would do nothing (of what he said). 



SYNTAX OF ADVEFvBS. 411 

B. 8. 7. Che niente la notte passata aveva dormifo ; 
who had not slept at all the preceding night. 

B. Fiam. Nulla mancare a me, il sommo delta beati- 
tudine a tener reputava; I thought I wanted nothing to 
reach the summit of happiness. 

B. Lab. E poi quando il bisogno viene, trovarmi non 
super nulla ; and when need requires it, I find I know 
nothing. 

These words, taken in an affirmative sense, are used 
without non, and are to follow the verb. 

B. 8. 8. Disse di voler esser piu che mai amico di 
Zeppa ; he said he would be Zeppa's friend more than 
ever. 

B. 9. 3. Buffalmacco . . . il domandb, se egli si sentisse 
niente ; Buffalmacco asked him what was the matter with 
him. 

B. 9. 3. Potrebbe egli essere die io avessi nulla ; per- 
haps there may be something the matter with me. 

Contrary to these rules some examples may be found 
in which these adverbs are sometimes put before the 
verb, though they affirm, and sometimes put after it, 
though they deny ; but it is necessary to observe that 
when this happens, it is done under the rules of the 
figurative construction. 



Non, No, STi. 

Non, a negative, is commonly to precede the verb 
which serves to deny. 

B. 4. 10. Ma chi e colui, die alcuna volta mal non 
faccia ? But who is there that some time or other doth 
not act amiss ? 

B. 4. 10. II die vorrei, die coil a me avvenisse, ma 
non dresser messo nelT area ; which. I wish may happen 
always to myself, but never to be put into a chest. 

Non, as an expletive, is put after verbs expressive of 
fear, doubt, or suspicion, for something that is not 
wished to happen. 

t 2 



412 SYNTAX OF ADVERBS. 

B. 1.1. Dubitavan forte, non Ser Ciappelletto gV 
ingannasse; they feared that Ser Ciappelletto deceived 
them. 

Sacc. 84 La donna £ I giovane udendo bussare, subito 
sospettarono che non fosse quello eft era ; the woman and 
the young man on hearing a knock at the door, directly 
suspected what it was. 

Non, as an expletive, is put before a verb finite, when 
che, with which it is accompanied, is a case of the com- 
parative piu, meno, meglio, &c. See the comparatives, 
page 269, for examples. 

Non loses its last letter and joins with the following 
word when that word is il as a pronoun, not as an article ; 
thus, nol. 

B. 5. 1. E quantunque la giovane sua cornpagnia 
rifiutasse, niai da se partir nol pute ; and although the 
young damsel refused his company, she could not get 
rid of him. 

When instead of il, lo, la, li, le, follow, non may 
change its last letter into I, thus, nollo, nolla, nolli, 
nolle ; but as this coalition is not frequently used, we 
refrain from giving examples. 

No serves to answer in the negative. 

Nov. Ant. Avete voi piu d ''un capitano ? No, dio, 
rispose il cancelliere. Have you more than one captain ? 
No, indeed, replied the chancellor. 

No is used with the correspondence of s\. 

B. Filoc. Folle no, ma innamorato si ; not mad, but in 
love. 

No is used instead of non, when the verb with which 
it is accompanied is understood. 

B. 5. 1. /Z vento poggiava in contrario intanto* che 
non che essi del picciol seno uscir potessero, ma o voles- 
sero, o no, gli sospinse alia terra ; the wind in the mean 
time was strongly against them, and drove them 



SYNTAX OF ADVERBS. 418 

ashore in spite of all they could do to prevent it ; that 
is, o volessero, o non volessero. 

When two negatives happen to be in the same phrase, 
one is to be no, and the other non. 

B. 7. S. Disse la peronella : No, per quello nan 
rimarra il mercato ; no, this shall never break the 
bargain, said Peronella. 

No and si, used in answering, and preceded by a verb, 
are accompanied with di; thus, di s\ and di no. 

B. 9*1 Dirb io di no della prima cosa, che rrC ha 
richiesto ? shall I say no to her first request ? 

B. 4. 10. La quale tomb, e disse di si ; who came back 
and said yes. 

Qua and Qui. 

These two adverbs signify here, in the place where we 
are, and are indifferently used for one another. 

B. Introd. Noi dimoriamo qui ; we live here. 

B. 2. 1. Egli e qua un tnalvagio uomo ; here is a 
wicked fellow. Instead of qui and qua, ci may be used 
when it refers to a place mentioned before. 

B. 1. 1. Io non vorrei che voi guardaste, per che io sia 
in casa di questi usurieri ; io non ci ho a Jure nulla, anzi 
ci era venuto per dovergli ammonire ; I would not have 
you think so, because you see me in the house of these 
usurers ; I have no concern in it, but I came here 
merely to admonish them. 

Ci repeated is used for qui, in this or to this house ; 
casa being mentioned before. 

Ci is changed into ce when it is followed by one of 
the relative pronouns, lo, la, li, le, ne. See conjunctive 
pronouns for examples, page 299. 

Costi and Costa. 

These two adverbs signify there, where you are, or 
rather, there, where a person is, and is addresssd : the 



414 SYNTAX OF ADVERBS. 

former denoting a precise or determinate place, and thef 
latter rather an indeterminate one, or without precision. 

B. 7. 9. Io vidi levarvi e porvi costi, dove voi siete a 
seder e ; I saw you get up and place yourselves there 
where you are sitting. Cost\ a precise place, which the 
person that speaks of it points out. 

B. 3. 1, Se voi mi metteste costa entro, io vi lavorero 
V orio ; if you will place me there, Til do your business 
for you. Costa an indeterminate place, as the person 
speaks of a garden which he does not see. 

La, Cola, Ivi, Quivi, Ci, Vi. 

All these adverbs signify there, thither, or in that 
place which is distant from the speaker and the person 
who is spoken to. 

La and cold are commonly put after the verb. 

B. 4. 10. Cominciarono a dire : Chi I la ? They 
began to say, Who is there ? 

They are used when followed by dove, ove, onde, with 
the former of which la generally makes one word, thus, 
laddove. 

B. 6. 1. Essendojvrse la via lunghetta di la onde si 
partivano, a cola dove tutti a pil d'andare intendevano ; 
as the way was rather long from whence they set off, 
whither they were to go on foot. 

These two adverbs are also used when they have the 
correspondence of qua and qui. 

B. 8. 7. Senza starjerma or qua or la si tramuta 
piangendo ; and weeping, she wanders about here and 
there. 

B. 4. 8. Tu ti divertirai molto mbgliore...\k che qui 
nonfacesti ; you will amuse yourself better... there than 
you have done here. 

Ivi and quivi may be used either before or after the 
verb, or one for another, at the option of the writer or 
speaker. 



SYNTAX OF ADVERBS. 415 

Ci and vi, signifying there, are commonly placed 
before the verb ; and are indifferently used one for 
another ; but if there be any difference, it is that ci is 
used in speaking of places which the speaker is acquainted 
with, or near to, and vi is used in speaking of places 
far off. 

B. Lab. Veramente ci sono io altre volte stato ; Indeed 
I was there some time ago. 

B. 5. 3. Disse la giovane; e come ci sono abitanze 
presso da potere albergare ? A cui il buon uomo rispose : 
?ion ci sono in niun luogo si presso ; the lady said, and 
how far is it to any inn, where I may put up ? to whom 
the good man answered : there is none near enough. 

B. 3. 1. // luogo e ass at loniano di qui, e niuno mi vi 
conosce, se io so far vista d'esser mutolo, per certo io vi 
sard ricevuto ; that place is very far from hence, and 
nobody there knows me, and if I can play the part 
of a dumb person, I shall without doubt be received 
there. 

Donde and Onde. 

These adverbs signify whence ox from whence, and are 
indifferently used. 

B. 2. 3. Comincid piacevolmente a ragionare e doman- 
dav chijbsse, donde venisse e dove andasse ; and she 
began to converse kindly with him, and inquired who 
he was, whence he came, and whither he was going. 

B. 2. 9. La buona femmina torno per la cassa sua, e 
cola la riporto onde levata Tavea ; the good woman came 
for her chest, and carried it back to the place from 
whence she had taken it. 

These two adverbs are sometimes used as relatives, 
which see page 331 for examples and construction. 

Many more adverbs of particular construction might 
be inserted here ; such as, cost, come, tanto, quanto, piu, 
meno, meglio, peggio, molto ; but as we have sufficiently 



418 SYNTAX OF PKEPOSITIONS, 

spoken of them in treating of comparatives and super- 
latives, page 263, we refer the learner to those places. 

Some modern grammarians assert that the adverbs of 
quantity, such as, tanto, quanto, altrettanto, molto, 
poco, troppo, being accompanied with a substantive, 
become adjectives. This, however, is not the case, as 
the adverb, being naturally indeclinable, cannot be 
made an adjective by declining it, or rather by making 
it agree with the substantive ; and in the phrases, datemi 
tanto pane quanto ne potro mangiare ; comprate tanti 
libri quanti ne avete bisogno ; vi sono troppi maestri, 
&c. tanto, tanti, quanto, quanti, troppi, are not adverbs 
turned into adjectives, but mere adjectives, which may 
be easily seen in their English translation. Give me as 
much bread as (much bread) I shall be able to eat. Pur- 
chase as many books as (many books) you want. There 
are too many masters. 

In the first part, we gave a list of the principal adverbs 
compounded of more words than one, which cannot be 
found in dictionaries ; but we must inform the learner that 
there are a great many of different significations, with 
which to be well acquainted, it is necessary to consult our 
Dictionary of Peculiarities. 



SYNTAX OF PREPOSITIONS. 

In the second part of this grammar we laid down a 
list of prepositions, particularizing the cases which they 
govern ; nothing now remains but to speak of their situa- 
tion, and to make some remarks on the principal of 
them. 

RULE CI. 

The preposition is commonly placed before the case 
which it governs. 

B. 2. Passando ungiorno davanti la casa, dove la bella 
donna dimorava ; passing one day before the house where 
the lady dwelt. 



SYNTAX OF PREPOSITIONS. 417 

Gr. Vill. Stando aW assedio di Genova presso di cinque 
anni ; he being at the siege of Genoa about five years. 

. Sometimes the case governed by the preposition, being 
a pronoun personal, is put before the verb, and the said 
preposition remains isolated after the verb. 

B. % 5. Or viamettiti avanti, io ti verro appresso; 
Now then, go on, I will follow thee. That is io verro 
appresso a te. 

N. Ant. 18. II tesorier prese quelli marchi, e raise un 
tappeto in una sola, e versollivi suso ; the treasurer took 
those marks, and putting a carpet in a drawing-room, 
threw them upon it. That is, e li verso sopra di esso. 

As to the situation of the preposition together with 
its case, there is no fixed rule ; sometimes it is put before, 
other times in the middle, and more frequently at the 
end of a sentence ; as in the following examples. 

B. 1. 7. Avanti ora di mangiare pervenne la dove Jo 
abate era ; he arrived at the abbofs house before dinner. 
Avanti ora a preposition with its case in the beginning. 

B. 2. 3. Camminando adunque il novello abate ora 
avanti, e ora appresso alia sua Jumiglia, gli venne nel 
cammino presso di se veduto Alessandro ; the new abbot 
then riding sometimes before his company, and sometimes 
behind it, got sight of Alexander on the road next to him- 
self. Avanti, appresso, and presso, prepositions with their 
cases, in the middle of the sentence. 

B. 3. 3. Non molto dopo a questo convenne al marito 
andare infino a Genova ; not long after, her husband 
was obliged to go to Genoa. Infino with its case at the 
end of the sentence. 

In these examples Boccaccio might also have said, 
pervenne avanti ora di mangiare la, &c, or pervenne ld 9 
dove lo abate era, avanti ora di mangiare, &c. without 
committing a fault. In this respect it is the ear only which 
we are to consult, especially when it has been accustomed, 
by reading the best authors, to similar expressions. 

t3 



418 SYNTAX OF PREPOSITIONS. 



REMARKS ON SOME PREPOSITIONS. 

Verso, Inverso, Alia volta. 

These prepositions, signifying toivards or to, are used 
indifferently for one another. 

B. % 8. In povero abito n'ando verso Londra; he went 
to London in mean apparel. 

B. 2. End. Presero adunque . . . inverso un giardinetto 
la via ; they walked to a small garden. 

Firenzuola. Preso quel rasqjo in mono, se ?t' ) ando 
alia volta sua ; he took that razor in his hand, and went 
up to him. 

Fino, Infino, Sino, Insino. 

These prepositions are used indifferently for one 
another, and signify till, until, as Jar as. 

Lungi, Lontano, Discosto. 

These prepositions signify far, distant, and are used 
indifferently for one another. Discosto, however, is not 
so much made use of as the other two. 

Accanto, Allato, Dallato, Di costa, Appresso, Vic'mo, 
Presso, Appo, Rasente. 

All these prepositions signify by, by the side, near, 
close, but they are differently used. 

Accanto, allato, dallato, di costa, appresso, and rasente, 
are used in speaking of a proximity, close by. 

B. 9. 6. La quale allato del letto pose la culla ; who 
put the cradle by the bed-side. 

B. 3. Beg. Fattosi aprire un giardino die di costa 
era al palagio in quello...se n" entrarono ; they entered 
a garden which was by the side of the palace. 

F. Sacc. 29. Fece unforo con un succhio in quel rnuro 
rasente a quella ptntola ; he bored a hole with a wimble 
in the wall close by the pipkin. 



SYNTAX OF PREPOSITIONS. 419 

B. 1. 6. Emilia la quale appresso la Fiammetta sedea ; 
Emilia, who was seated by Fiammetta's side. 

Vkino and presso are used in speaking of a proximity, 
but not very close. 

B. S. 4. Presso a Salerno e una costa, la quale gii 
abitanti chiamano la costa di Malfi ; near Salerno 
there is a coast which the inhabitants call the coast of 
Malfi. 

B. 5. 2. Vicin di Cilicia e un isoletta cliiamata Lipari ; 
near Sicily is a small island called Lipari. 

Contro and Contra. 

These two prepositions signify against, and are used 
indifferently for one another ; as, contro lui, against 
him ; contra di te, against thee. Some grammarians 
have made a rule, which is to use contra when it governs 
the accusative or the genitive, and contro, when it 
governs the dative ; and though many examples are 
found in which these prepositions are used indiscrimi- 
nately, we think this distinction good, as putting the 
dative after contra, would sound rather unpleasant to 
the ear. 

B. 1. 6. Lui domando se vero fosse cio, che ccntro di 
3ui era stato detto ; he asked, whether it were true what 
they had said against him. Contro with the genitive. 

B. 1. 4. Acclocche poi non avesser cagione di mormorar 
contra di lui ; in order that they might not have occasion 
lo speak against him. Contra with the genitive. 

B. In trod. NiurC altra ' medicina esse re contro alle 
pestilenze migliore ; no other remedy w r as a better pre- 
servative against the plague. Contro, and not contra, 
with the dative. 

Dirimpetto, Rimpetto, Afronte. 

These prepositions signify over against, opposite, and 
are used indifferently for one another. Afronte, how- 
ever, is not so familiarly used as the other two. 



420 SYNTAX OF CONJUNCTIONS. 

Giuslo, Giusta, Secondo. 

These prepositions signify according to, and have been 
used indifferently for one another. The two first are 
at present rather obsolete. 

Eccetto, Salvo, Fuori, Infuori. 

These prepositions signify except, hut, and are indis- 
criminately used for one another. 

The above prepositions, as well as those of which we ' 
gave a list in the second part of this grammar, have 
a great many more significations besides these assigned 
to them, all of which, together with their analogous 
examples, will be found in our Dictionary of Pecu- 
liarities. 

SYNTAX OP CONJUNCTIONS. 

Conjunctions, as we observed page 2&9, serve to con- 
nect sentences. They do not govern any case, but 
moods, and of these we will speak in this part of the 
grammar. 

RULE CII. 

There are conjunctions which govern the infinitive, 
others govern the indicative, some the subjunctive, and 
most of them both the indicative and the subjunc- 
tive, according to the signification of the verb which 
precedes them. 

B. 6\ 6. Una novella, nella quale, quanta sia la lor 
nohilta si dimostra, senza dal nostro proposito deviare ; 
a story in which their great nobility is exhibited without 
deviating from our subject. Senza with the infinitive 
dsvi&re. 

B. 4<. 6. E comeche questo a' suoi niuna consolazione 
sia, pure a ?ra£...sara un piacere ; and although it is no 
consolation to his own relations, it will afford me plea- 
sure* Pure with the indicative mra. 



SYNTAX OF CONJUNCTIONS. 421 

B. 2. 2. Acciocche egli niuna sospezion prendesse ; 
and in order that he might not suspect. Acciocche, with 
the subjunctive. 

B. 5. 9. Dovete adunque sapere, che Coppo di Bor- 
ghese Domenichi...essendo gia d! anni pieno si dilettava ; 
you must know, therefore, that Coppo di Borghese Do- 
menichi, in his old age, took pleasure. 

B. 7. 9. Voglio ch ""ella mi mandi una ciocchetta della 
barba di Nicostrato ; I wish that she would send nie a 
lock of Nicostratus's beard. 

In these two last examples die governs both the indi- 
cative and the subjunctive, viz. — si dilettava and mandi ; 
the former is in the indicative, because sapere, which 
governs che, is in an affirmative sense, and the latter is in 
the subjunctive, because voglio, which governs che, is 
expressive of a wish, as we said page 386. 

The conjunctions that govern an infinitive are dapo, 
per, senza, and all those that are attended by a preposi- 
tion, such as prima di, avanti di, in vece di, oltre a, &c. ; 
as dopo aver detto, after having said, per andare, in order 
to go; senza dire, without saying; prima di partire, 
before going, &c. 

Those that govern the subjunctive are — 

acciocche that 

affinche in order that 

ancorche though 

anzi che before that 

avanti che before that 

avvegnache though 

benche *. .. although 

caso che in case that 

come se as if 

come che although 

con patto che on condition that 

dato che suppose that 

innanzi che before that 

purche .provided that 

quando anche although 

quasi as if 

quantunque though 



4S2 SYNTAX OF CONJUNCTIONS. 

pognamo die suppose that 

prima che before that 

senza che without that 

contuttoche although 

Here are a few examples : — 

B. 4. 10. Ella, che medica non era, comeche medico 
fosse il marito, senza alcun folio lui credette esser morto ; 
she, who was not a physician, although her husband was 
one, thought he was dead. Comeche with fosse sub- 
junctive. 

B. 3. 8. La medicina da guarirlo so io troppo bene 

Jure, purche a voi dea il cuore di segreto tenere rid, die 

io vi ragionero ; the remedy, in such a case, I know well 

how to apply, provided you will keep it a secret. Purche 

with dea subjunctive. 

B. 7. 8. Era Arriguccio, contuttoche fosse mercante, 
unjiero uomo, ed icn Jbrie ; although Arriguccio was a 
merchant, he was a stout warlike man. Contuttoche 
withjbsse subjunctive. 

Although it is the nature of the above conjunctions to 
be accompanied with the subjunctive, we find never- 
theless, in good writers, some of them accompanied also 
with the indicative. 

B. 2. 10. Benche a me. non parve mai che voi giudice 
Jbste ; although I never thought you were a judge. 
Benche with parve indicative. 

B. 2. 8. La sanita del vostro Jigliuolo nelle rnani 
della Giannetta dimora* la quale il giovane focosamente 
ama, comeche ella non sene accorge per quello cti io vegga; 
the welfare of your son lies in the hands of Jeannette, 
with whom the young man is desperately in love, al- 
though, by what I perceive, she knows nothing of it. 
Comeche with accorge indicative. 

Many more examples of this kind would be laid down, 
but we refrain from doing so, as we do not wish the 
student should swerve from the general rule, which is to 
accompany the above conjunctions with the subjunctive, 
and never with the indicative. 



SYNTAX OF CONJUNCTIONS. 423 

The conjunctions that sometimes govern the indica- 
tive, and sometimes the subjunctive, are — 

fino che 

finche 

finattantoche 

. c i > till or until 

mnno che e .. 6S f 

infinche | 

infinattantoche .J 

perche why 

quando when 

se if 

sebbene though 

se bene although 

che that 

conciossiache ^ /. 

conciossiacosache S 

All those signifying till or until are found with both 
moods indicative and subjunctive. 

B. 5. 10. Chi te lafa 9 fagliele, e se tu non puoi, tien- 
lati a mente finche tu possa ; to him who plays you a 
trick, play another, and if you cannot, bear it in mind 
until you can. Finche with the subjunctive possa. 

Trat. Sap. Lo mio cuore non pud essere in pace, finat- 
tantoche egli non si riposi in voi ; my heart cannot rest, 
till it finds its repose in you. Finattantoche with the 
subjunctive riposi 

B. 8. 7. Che alcun non v* entrasse deniro^ infinattanto- 
che egli tomato fosse; that nobody should enter until 
his return. Infinattantoche with the subjunctive josse* 

B. 10, 4. Niuna doversi muovere del luogosuo, finat- 
tantoche io non ho la mia novella finita ; none of you 
are to stir from your places, till I put an end to my 
story. Finattantoche with the indicative ho Jinita. 

B. 5. Beg. Su per le rugiadose erbe, infinattantoche 
alquanto il sole fu alzato, colla sua compagnia diporlando 
se ri ando ; she and all the company walked leisurely 
upon the dew T y grass until the sun was a little higher. 

It is to be observed that, in the above examples, the 
subjunctive is used when the action of the verb denotes 



424 SYNTAX OF CONJUNCTIONS. 

futurity, and the indicative when it denotes past or pre- 
sent time. 

It is further to be observed that these conjunctions 
may sometimes be accompanied with the negative non, 
as is seen in the second of the above five examples, and 
also the fourth, finattantoche egli non riposi, Jinattanto- 
cte io non ho, &c. 

Che is accompanied with the indicative, except when 
the preceding verbs are expressive of fear, doubt, com- 
rncmd, &c. See page 386. 

Conciossiache, and conciossiacosache may indifferently 
govern either the indicative or the subjunctive; but as 
they are not very much in use at present, we forbear 
giving examples. 

Perche, whether interrogative or affirmative, is accom- 
panied with the indicative ; but it governs the subjunc- 
tive, when it is used for acciocche, benche, or any con- 
junction governing the subjunctive. 

B. 3. 8. E perche cagione? disse Ferondo, Dice il 
mcmaco, perche tu fosti geloso ; and wherefore ? said 
Ferondo. The monk replied, because you were jealous. 

Passavanti. Perche vuole Iddio ? Perche Iddio si vuole ; 
Why will God have it so ? Because it is His will. 

In these two examples perche is accompanied with 
fosti and vuole verbs both in the indicative. 

B. 9. 9. La ''ncomincio a battere, perche 'Z passasse ; 
he gave her some severe discipline in order to cure her. 
Perche instead of acciocche, and therefore passasse in 
the subjunctive. 

B. Fiam. Or che da amare, perche io voglia, non mi 
posso partire ; now I cannot forget my passion although 
I would. Perche instead of benche, and therefore voglia 
in the subjunctive. 

Quando is accompanied with the indicative, except 
when it is used in the sense of se. 

B. 9. Proem. Cominciavansi ijiorettiper liprati a levar 



SYNTAX OF CONJUNCTIONS. 425 

suso, quando Emilia levatasi, fece le sue compagne pa- 
rimente chiamare; the flowers in the meadows were just 
getting up their stems, when Emilia left her bed, and 
sent for her companions. Quando with the indicative 
fece. 

B. 6. 1. Quando voi vogliate, io vi portero gran parte 
delta via che andare abbiamo a cavallo ; if you like I 
will carry you (on my horse) a great part of the way 
which we have to go. Quando in the sense of se with 
the subjunctive. 

Se joined with the present tense is to govern the indi- 
cative. 

B. 2. 8. Caccia via la paura, e dimmi se io posso m- 
torno al tuo amove adoperare alcuna cosa ; away with 
your fears, and tell me whether I can do any thing to 
console you. Se with posso indicative. 

But when something contingent or doubtful is implied, 
40 is accompanied with the subjunctive. 

B. 1 . 2. Io son del tutto, se tu vuogli, cK io faccia 
quello di che tu tri 1 hai cotanto pregato, disposto ad an- 
darvi ; I am fully resolved to go thither, if you will 
have me do what you have so much solicited. Se with 
vuogli subjunctive. 

Se, in the sense of cost, a particle expressive of desire 
or entreaty, governs the verb in the subjunctive. 

B. 7. 7. Dimmi se Dio ti salvi, Egano ; tell me, pray, 
Egano. 

Se 9 joined with the imperfect tense, governs it in the 
indicative whenever the action is entirely past. 

Buommattei. E se quelle die avevano la materia 
Latina, avevano alV incontro ; and if those (words) which 
were derived from the Latin, had on the contrary. Se 
with the imperfect of the indicative avevano, because 
the action is entirely past. 

But if the action implies futurity, the verb is to be 
put in the subjunctive. 



426 



•SYNTAX OF CONJUNCTIONS. 



B. 4. 8. Si dispose, se morir ne dovesse, di parlarle 
esso stesso ; he resolved to speak to her himself, 
though it might cost him his life. Se with the im- 
perfect of the subjunctive dovesse, because the action 
implies futurity. 

B. 8. 7. Dirai alia mia donna, die di questo ncm stea 
in pensiero, eke se il suo amanie . fosse in India, io glielo 
faro prestamente venire; tell your mistress that she need 
give herself no trouble ; for were her lover, in the In- 
dies, I could send him to her in an instant. Se with 
the imperfect of the subjunctive fosse, because the action 
implies futurity. 

Se, joined with the pluperfect, governs it in the sub- 
junctive always, without exception. 

Ganganelli. E se diviso non fosse il paese in tanti 
governi diversi ; and if the country were not divided 
into so many different governments. Se with the plu- 
perfect of the subjunctive jfas\S£ diviso. 

Buommattei. E se non mi fosse si nota la somma cor- 
tesia vostra ; and were I not acquainted with your great 
kindness. Se with the pluperfect of the subjunctive 
fosse nota. 

Se bene or sebbene commonly governs the indica- 
tive, 

Gelli. Perche sebbene i giovani V aumentano, £ ncm 
mnno di poi niantenerle ; for although young people 
sometimes enlarge them (cities), they know not how to 
govern them afterwardsc Sebbene with the indicative 
aivmeniano. 

Gruicciardini. E nondirneno dalla banda del campo, se 
bene le opere fossero finite, si procedeva con qualche ten- 
tezza ; nevertheless, they went on slowly on the side of 
the camp, although all the works were at an end. Seb- 
bene with the suhymctw efossero. 

These are the principal conjunctions whose construc- 
tion is worthy of observation ; all the others are gene- 
rally accompanied with the indicative, and as they 



SYNTAX OF INTERJECTIONS. 427 

are not attended with any difficulty, they require no 
examples. 

SYNTAX OF INTERJECTIONS. 

There is not much to say about interjections, as they 
do not govern any case ; and the list of them, which we 
have given in the first part, is sufficient for the informa- 
tion of the learner. Some grammarians, however, have 
made some of them, such as, bravo, bravlssimo, zitto, 
quieto, agree with the person or persons which we want 
to praise or command ; as, bravo, m brava, f bravi, m P 
brave/P zitto, ra zitta/ zitti, zitte. 

This, though contrary to the rules of the grammar, 
which calls interjections indeclinable, seems to be ap- 
proved of by custom, and where custom prevails, every 
thing must give way to it. 



428 OF ORTHOGRAPHY AND PROSODY. 



PART IV. 



OF ORTHOGRAPHY AND PROSODY. 

Orthography teaches the art of writing correctly all the words of 
a language, according to the rules established by the best writers ; 
and Prosody gives the rules for their proper pronunciation. 

As in order to write and pronounce properly, it is necessary to be 
acquainted with the various rules of retrenching, augmenting, and 
syncopating words, dividing them into syllables, placing the accent 
and apostrophe, we have divided the whole into eight chapters, and 
concluded this part with two additional ones, which treat of punc- 
tuation, and the use of the capital letters, making in all ten chapters, 
as follows : — 

' ORTHOGRAPHY. 

I. Rules for retrenching words. 

II. Rules for augmenting words. 

III. Rules for syncopating words. 

IV. Rules for dividing words. 

V. Rules for compounding words. 

PROSODY. 

VI. Rules for placing the accent. 

VII. Rules for placing the apostrophe. 

VIII. Quantity. 

ADDITIONS. 

IX. Punctuation. 

X. Use of capital letters. 

With respect to Orthography, we have laid down no general 
rules concerning the spelling of all words ; but we have only treated 
of those words which require particular observations, and which can- 
not be found in Dictionaries. 

With respect to Prosody, we have refrained from speaking of 
emphasis, tone, pause, &c, because they are common to all lan- 
guages; nor have we alluded to the laws of versification, because 
it is not our intention to teach the art of poetry; but our aim tends 
only to communicate to learners the proper and necessary rules to 
express and write down their ideas in elegant prose. 



RULES FOR ABRIDGING WORDS. 429 

CHAPTER I. 

RULES FOR RETRENCHING OR ABRIDGING WORDS. 

Words may be abridged either in the beginning or the end. 

The use of retrenching words in the beginning was very frequent 
in ancient writers ; at present, however, it is not common ; but we 
have laid down the following rules, in order that the learner may be 
acquainted with them, without caring to imitate them. 

1. Words beginning with the letter i, followed by one of these 
three liquid letters, /, m, n, and preceded by a word ending with a 
vowel, may lose the i and take an apostrophe. 

B. 1. 5. Chi '1 sapra? egli nol sapra persona mai. 
B. 2. 9. -II domando, se lo 'mperadore gli aveva questo privilegio 
conceduto. 
B. 2. 9. Lo , ngannatore rimane a' pie dello 'ngannato. 

Instead of chi il, Vimperadore, Vingannatore, deW ingannato. 

It is to be observed, that if one of the liquid letters, /, m, n, is 
followed by another liquid, or by a vowel, the abridgment cannot 
take place : thus we cannot write la 'Hade, fu 'nabile, lo "lluminato ; 
but la Iliade,fu inabile, V illuminate*. 

That if the accent falls on the i, with which the word begins, that 
retrenchment cannot take place; thus we cannot write la 'nclita, 
lo 'mpeto ; but /* inclita, V impeto. 

Before we proceed to speak of words that admit of abridgment 
at the end, we are to observe, that all words in the Italian language 
end in a vowel, except con, in, non, per; il and all its derivatives 
that coalesce with prepositions, such as del, al, dal, nel, sul, col, pel, 
composed of di il, a il, da il, in il, su il, con il, per il. Hence it hap- 
pens, that to render the discourse more energetic, or to avoid some 
unpleasant sound that may occur in the meeting of a double vowel, 
words are abridged of one, two, and sometimes three letters ; but 
this is to be done with great caution, otherwise, instead of giving 
energy to discourse, it is rendered weak and disagreeable to the 
ear. 

The following rules do not comprehend verbs. 

1. The articles lo, la, gli,le, with all their derivatives, are abridged 
before words beginning either with vowels or consonants. See 
page 48. 

2. Words ending in le,lo, ne, no, re, ro, as separated syllables, and 
preceding another word beginning with a consonant, may drop their 
last vowel : as, 

Mai caduco, gentil donna, vol veloce, benivol signore, cotal libro, 
can sozzo^pan bollito, uman signore, van soggetto, fin qui, cuor sincero, 



4S0 RULES FOR ABRIDGING WORDS. 

mar turbato, odor soave, color brillante, fyc. ; instead of male, gentile, 
volo, benivolo, cotah, cane, pane, umano, vano,fino, cuore, mare, odore, 
colore, 

Nero, pero, melo (apple tree), velo (veil), rvparo, are never 
abridged. 

If le, lo, ne, wo, re, ro, are not syllables by themselves, but a part, 
the abridgment cannot take place; as, 

Sofocle, anglo, vigne, pegno, acre, lavacro; and not sofocP, angV, 
&c. 

5. Words ending in lie, llo, nno, rro, preceding another word 
beginning with a consonant, may drop, with the last vowel, also one 
of the consonants : as, 

Val di Demona; caval donato ; don Francesco ; car trionfale, &c. 
instead of valle, cavallo, donno, carro. 

Apollo, colle (hill), collo (neck), corallo, cristallo,fallo, enello, spillo, 
are never abridged. 

4. Bello, santo,frate, grande, standing as adjectives, and preceding 
a substantive beginning with a consonant, may drop their fast sylla- 
ble: as, 

Bel giovane, san Giovanni, fra Francesco, gran signore, &c. 

If the following substantives begin with a vowel, these words lose 
only the last vowel and take an apostrophe : as, 

Bell 9 angela, sant y Antonio, fra? Eugenio, grand* amico, 

£. The numeral nouns uno, ventuno, trentuno, and all those ending 
in uno, are abridged before words beginning with a vowel or a con- 
sonant. 

6. The demonstrative pronouns questo, quello* cotesto, &c, are 
also abridged, some before*words beginning with a vowel only, and 
some before those beginning either with a vowel or with a consonant. 
Seepage 101. 

7. The relatives eke and quale are also abridged. See page 104. 

8. The pronouns personal egli and ella, with all their derivatives 
simple, such as mi, ti, si, lo, la, gli, li, le, ci, vi, and compound, such as 
melo, telo, selo, glielo, celo, velo, &c. are likewise abridged. See per- 
sonal pronouns, page 91. 

9. Indeterminate pronouns, such as niuno, ciascuno, and all those 
ending in uno, altro, &c. are also abridged before words beginning 
with vowels and consonants. See page 107. 

10. The propositions con, per, su, in, united with the articles, 
admit of abridgment. See page 50. 



RULES FOR ABRIDGING VERBS, 431 



RULES FOR ABRIDGING VERBS. 

11. All words derived from verbs, having one of the liquid 
letters, /, m, n, r, for their last but one, may lose their last vowel, 
before another word beginning with a consonant. 

B. 8. 5. Se vi cat di me, venite meeo infino al palagio. Ccd for 
cede. 

B. Conclus. Direm noi perciocche e* nuoce a' frebbicitanti, eh' e' 
sia malvagio ? Direm for diremo. 

B. 10. 8. Avvenne dopo alquantimesi che gli amici di Gisippo, 
ed i parenti furon con lui. Fur on for furono. 

B. 4. I. Costei non senza cagione, dovergliene aver donato. 
Aver for avere. 

Words having for their last but one two Vs, two m?s, &c. may 
drop, together with their last vowel, one of the liquids. 

Firenzuola. In quelle che fan riguardevole, e difendono lo animo. 
Fan for fanno. 

B. 1. 2, E credendosi tor certi veli. Tor for torre. 

12. All persons ending in ai and ei, being followed by one of these 
particles, mi, ti, gli, le, ci, vi, ne, may drop the i and coalesce with 
the particle : as, 

B. 9. 5. E far ami ogni cosa recare alia bottega. Farami for 
farai mi, 

B. 9. 3. E darele tante busse, che io la romperei tutta. Darele 
for darei le. 

B. 9. 3. Ed io ti mandero di quel beveraggio stillato, e comin- 
eierane a bere un buon bicchiere. Comincierane for comincerai ne. 

13. The second person singular of the second imperfect and 
conditional, followed by tu its own pronoun, loses ti, and coalesces 
with the said pronoun. 

B. 3. 3. Ove fostu stamane, poco avanti al giorno ? Fostu for 
fosti tu, 

B. 9 3, Si potrestu aver cavelle, non che nulla. Potrestu for 
potresti tu. 

This abridgment, as well as that of the preceding rule, though 
frequently used by authors of note, is considered to be rather obso- 
lete, and not to be imitated. 

14. The third person plural of the second imperfect, when 
regular, may be abridged of one, two, or three letters, before 
another word beginning with a consonant. 

B. 5. 3. E tutti pascendosi, senza altro lasciarvi, il divorarono e 
andar via. Andar for andarono. 



432 ABRIDGMENT OF WORDS. 

B. 5. 3. Costoro cominciaron fra loro ad aver consiglio. Comin- 
ciaron for cominciarono. 

In like manner, we may say, amaro for amarono; credero for 
crederono. 

1 5. All verbal words being abridged before the particles mi, ti, si, 
gli, le, ci, vi, ne, and also when these particles are compounded 
thus, melo, mene, telo, tela, &c. are to be joined with them, making 
one word. 

B. 9. 10. Ne piu ci ha modo da poterla rifare. Poterla for 
potere la. 

B. 3. 3. Acciocche voi crediate, ch' io abbia ragionc.di rammari- 
carmi. Rammaricarmi for rammaricare mi. 

B. 3. 3. Figliuola mia, tu facesti quello, die far dovevi, di man- 
darnelo, come facesti. Mandarnelo for mandare nelo. 

B. 8. 7. Andiamcene in camera. Andiamcene for andiamo cene* 

B. 9. 1. Ma il senno da una valorosa donna usato a torsi da dosso 
due che contro il suo piacere Famavano, cognoscerete. Torsi for 
torre si. 

In like manner, we say, sarebbermi for sarebbero mi 9 avranlo for 
avranno lo. JDaremli for daremo li, fyc. 

1 6. Dici, fece, sei 9 tieni, togli, voglio, vuoi, vedi, are abridged 
before words beginning with a vowel or consonant ; thus, d^,fe y , se\ 
te',to\ vo\ vuo* 9 ve. 

Varchi. Che di' tu ? Di 9 for dici. 

B. 9. 9. Donna ancor se* tu quel che tu suogli. Se' for sei. 

B. 9. 4. Deh perche non mi vuo' tu migliorar qui tre soldi. Vuo* 
for vuoi. 

B. 9. 1. La fante^' la risposta alia donna. Fe* for fece. 

B. 8. 7. Ora non ti vo' dir piu. To 9 for voglio. 

B. 4. 3. Te 9 questo lume, buono uomo, e guata s* egli e ben netto. 
Te 9 for tieni. 

To is better used in poetry. 



GENERAL REMARKS ON THE ABRIDGMENT OF WORDS. 

The last word of a period, or part of a sentence where there is 
a pause to be made, is never abridged; but this liberty is permitted 
to poets. 

Words whose last letter is accented, cannot be abridged, except 
benche and perche, which though accented, may drop the e and take 
an apostrophe, when followed by a word beginning with a vowel. 

B. 8. 5. Bench' ella fosse contrafFatta della persona. 
Varchi. Perch 9 ei nol sa. 



ABRIDGMENT OF WORDS. 483 

Words ending in a diphthong, are never to be abridged, except 
Antonio, demonio, testimonio, which are sometimes spelt Anton, 
demon, testimon, when followed by a word beginning with a conso- 
nant : thus, Anton Maria, demon crudele, testimon fedele. 

Words ending in a, may lose the a and take an apostrophe, before 
another word beginning with a vowel, and especially when that 
vowel is an a; as, beW arnica, sol 9 urna, senz 9 appoggio ; but they 
cannot be abridged before words beginning with a consonant, so 
that we are not to say, una sol volta, egli non consol nessuno ; but 
una sola volta; egli non consola nessuno. We must except, however, 
ora, an adverb, with all its derivatives, such as allora, ognora, tuttora, 
talora, ancora, &c. which may drop the last a before words beginning 
with a consonant. 

B o. 1. Or bene, comefaremo? 

B. 1. 2. Sono piu tanto ancor migliori, &c. 

Che, se, ogni, are not abridged of their last vowel, unless the 
following words begin with the same letter as those words end with, 

B. 3. 7. Pregandolo, che se per la salute di Aldobrandino era 
venuto, cti egli s'avacciasse. Ch 9 egli for che egli. 

In like manner, we say s 9 egli, not s 9 io for seio; ogn* intorno? 
ogn 9 ingrato; but not ogn 9 amico, ogrf animate, for ognia mieo, ogni 
animate. g 

Anche and qualche are subject to the same rule as che, and though 
they are found abridged before words beginning with any vowel, we 
advise the student to adhere to the rule we have laid down. 

Words ending in ce, ci, ge, gi, are never to be abridged of the 
e or i, unless the following word begins with the same vowel; as, 
voc 9 eminente, dole 9 imenei, piagg' erbe, &c. ; preg 9 illustri, &c. and 
even this ought to be done with caution, and we advise the student 
to write those words entire: thus, voce eminente, dolci imenei, as it 
is more harmonious. 

The plurals of nouns are never to be abridged, unless their last 
letter is the same as that with which the following word begins ; 
and then an apostrophe is inserted ; as, gentil 9 Inglesi, fed el 9 , Italiani, 
&c. We are to except belli, cavalli, fratelli, capelli, animali, tali y 
which are sometimes abridged befcre words beginning with vowels 
or consonants; thus, be\ cava 1 , /rate, cape\ anima 9 , ta 9 ; but we 
must inform the student that words thus abridged, are used with 
more propriety by poets, than by those who wish to write or speak 
in prose. 

Grande, however, may be abridged in the plural, in prose, and it 
is very frequently found. 

B. 5. 3. Le quali (brigate) molte volte ne fanno di gran dispiaceri. 

All words derived from verbs, that, as we said above, may be 

u 



RULES FOR AUGMENTING WORDS. 

abridged before another word beginning with a consonant, cannot 
be conveniently abridged before words beginning with a vowel, and 
especially infinitives ; therefore the student is never to say, cercar 
alirui, amar amici, portar ancora, but cercare altrui, amare amid, 
portare ancora. 

The first person singular of the indicative present ending in lo, 
mo, no, ro, having the accent on the last syllable but one, is never 
abridged ; therefore, the student is never to write, consol, dom, don y 
ador, but consolo, domo, dono, adoro. Sono, however, may be 
abridged; as, 

B. 8. 9. E oltre a cio son Dottore di medicina. 

The first person plural of the conditional is never to be abridged, 
in order not to confound it with the first person plural of the future: 
therefore the student is to write daremmo and not darem, ameremmo 
and not amerem. 

The first and the third person of the imperfect of the subjunctive, 
are never to be abridged, unless the following word begins with the 
same vowel with which those persons end ; thus we are to say, 

B. 9. 1. Non ne dovess' io certo morire. 

B. 9. 3. Ma cosi foss" io sano, come io non sono. 

B. 9. 3. Foss ella qui, gliel direi. 

But not dovess' andare for dovessi, foss 9 arrivate for fosse. 

The same may be said of the first and third persons of the con- 
ditional. 

B. 9. 1. O se essi mi cacciasser gli occhj, o mi traessero i denti 
...o mozzassermi le mani...a che save" io. 
B. 9. 2. Che farebb' egli in tal caso. 

We conclude these remarks by saying, that no word is abridged 
before another word beginning with s impura; therefore, the student 
is never to say, cercar stato, dover stare, amar studj, but cercare stato, 
dovere stare, amare studj. 

There are many more words that may be abridged, but they 
belong to poetry and not to prose. 



CHAPTER II. 

RULES FOR AUGMENTING WORDS. 

Words in Italian are frequently augmented both at the beginning 
and the end, to prevent that harshness of sound which arises from 
the clashing of several consonants together, as is seen in the follow- 
ing rules. 



RULES FOR AUGMENTING WORDS. 435 

1 . Words beginning with an 5 followed by another consonant, 
such as studio, spirito, &c. and being preceded by a word ending 
with a consonant, are augmented by an i, and sometimes an <?, which 
are put in the beginning of the word before s ; as — ■ 

B. 3. 7. Voi mi avete colto in iscambio. Iscambio for scambio. 

B. 4. 10. Niuna cosa in casa sua durar poteva in istato. Istato for 
stato. 

B. 8. 6. Per non ismarrirle e scambiarle, fece loro un certo se- 
gnaluzzo. Ismarrirle for smarrirle. 

B. 8. 7. Le forze della penna sono troppo maggiori, che colore 
non estimano. Estimano for stimano. 

Those words augmented by an e, as in the last example, are not 
so frequently used as the others ; and therefore we advise the stu- 
dent to make use of i. 

It is to be observed that poets have often neglected this rule, say- 
ing non sbigottir, per scampar, Sec. ; but prose writers have always 
been exact in the observance of it. 

2. The particles a, e, 0, preceding words beginning with vowels, 
may have a d added to them ; thus, ad, ed, od. 

B. 3. 7. Senza far motto ad amico, od a parente, fuorche ad un suo 
compagno. 

B. 8,3. Ed ivi presso correva un fiumicel di vernaccia. 

If two of these particles come together, the second only may have 
a d added to it ; as — 

B, 1.1. Vi cominciarono le genti ad andare, e ad accender lumi, e 
ad adorarlo. 

It is to be observed that the addition of d to the above particles, 
when they are single, may be done at pleasure ; and we may equally 
say, ed ifratelli, e ifratelli, vado ad udire, vado a udire: when, how- 
ever, the word that follows begins with the same vowel as the parti- 
cles, the d is to be always added to them ; as, ed egli, ad andare, od 
onore, and not e egli, a andare f onore. 

3. Che, benche, ne, se, also have a d added when the following 
word begins with a vowel 

Nov. Ant. 100. Sappi ched io t' amo sopra tutte le persone del 
mondo. Ed ella disse signor mio, benched io sia giovane....io vi 
faro il maggior signore del mondo, 

Villani. Ned eziandio il detto Re d'Ungheria. 

This, however, though used by authors of note, is considered obso- 
lete, and must on no account be imitated. 

4. Su, preceding a word whose first letter is a vowel, has an r 
added to it. 

Crescenzio. La cui parte di sotto sia sur un bastoncello piccolo. 

u2 



438 RULES FOR SYNCOPATING WORDS. 

Davanzati. Mettivi buona parte de' raspi triti bene e battuti in sur 
un* asse col coltello. 

6. To dz, gui, me, te, su, tu, e or ne was added by ancient writers ; 
thus, giue or giune, mee or mene, tee or tene, sue or sune, tue or tune, 
die not dine ; but at present they are totally obsolete. 

6. Words derived from verbs ending in o accented, such as amb, 
faro, &c. were augmented by putting an e at the end ; and those end- 
ing in e and i, by putting an o, by ancient writers both in prose and 
poetry. 

Villani. II Re d'Ungheria non poteo seguire la sua impresa. Poteo 
for pote. 

Dante, P. 2. In che si vede, come nostra natura a Dio s' unio. 
Unio for unz. 

In like manner they wrote donoe for dond, amoe for amo ; but such 
an augmentation at present, is better to be known than imitated. 

7. All nouns ending in a and il accented, were formerly augmented 
by annexing the syllables te or de to them ; thus, libertate or liber- 
tade for libertd, caritate or caritade for caritd, virtute or virtude for 
virtu, servitude or servitude for servitil ; but at present they are quite 
obsolete. 



CHAPTER III. 

RULES FOR SYNCOPATING WORDS. 

Syncopating is the taking of one or more letters from the middle 
of words ; thus, fe-sti for facesti, de~e for deve, anima-i for animalu 
But as it is more frequent in poetry than in prose, we shall lay down 
only those rules which may be used also in prose. 

1. Words ending in ali, elli, egli, uoli, may be syncopated by 
taking out the /, or //', or gl. The following are frequently used in 
prose : altretai for altretali, animai for animali, strai for strali, mortal 
for mortali, bei for belli or begli, ei for elli or egli, augei for augelli, 
fratei for fratelli, tai for tali, cotai for cotali, qaai for quali, quel for 

quelli or quegli,figliuoi for flgliuoli, lacciuoi for lacciuoli. 

2. Medesimo, merito, spirito, are syncopated thus; medesmo or 
medemo, merto, spirto. 

3. Bevere is often syncopated by taking out ve, as bere. See 
page 194. 

4. Deve loses its v, and also devi and devono: thus dee, dei, 
deono. 

B. 5. 2. Ciascuno si dee dilettare di quelle cose. 

5 The first and third person singular, and the third of the plural, 



RULES FOR DIVIDING WORDS. 437 

of the imperfect tense of verbs ending in ere and ire in the infinitive, 
such as, io credeva, egli temeva, eglino sentivano, from credere, temere, 
and sentire, are syncopated by taking out their last v. 

B. 4. 1. Eracostei bellissima....phi che a donna non si richiedea* 
Richiedea for richiedeva. 

B. 10. 7. Comincio ad aspettare il vespro, nel quale il suo signor 
veder dovea. Dovea for doveva. 

B. 9. 4. Colui che in camicia gli venia dietro gridando. Venia 
for veniva. 

B. 5. 3. Poscia che a lui parve esser sicuro, e fuor delle mani di 
coloro che preso F aveano, Aveano for avevano. 

6. Feci,facesti, facemmo, faceste, are syncopated thus ; fei, festi, 
femmo,feste, and may be used in prose. 

7. Participles of the first conjugation, ending in ato, such as 
adornato, adombrato, salvato, may be syncopated by taking out at, 
thus adorn-o, adombr-o, salv-o. 

For the list of participles that may be syncopated, as well as for 
examples on the subject, and other particulars, see page 214. 

Besides those abbreviations, augmentations, and sycopations, of 
which we have spoken in the three preceding chapters, there is 
an infinite number of words that may be abridged, augmented, 
and syncopated ; but as they are chiefly used by poets, we have 
refrained from speaking of them. When, however, the student is 
pretty well advanced in the study of Italian prose, he may be pro- 
vided with a small dictionary, treating of poetical licences, in which 
he will find all that is necessary to read Italian poets. 



CHAPTER IV. 

RULES FOR DIVIDING WORDS. 

A long word happening to be at the end of a line, is generally 
divided, and a part of it is put in the beginning of the next line. 
In order to do that properly, the student is to pay particular atten- 
tion to the following rules : — 

1. Words, in being divided at the end of a line, are to have each 
syllable ended in a vowel; as, 

a-do-ro co4o- re pre-po-si-zio-ne 

di-vi-de-re ..,.ge-ne-ra-re se-pa-ra-to 

be-ne-vo-lo .. ..ma~la-ge-vo-le ..ne-vi-ca-re, &c. 

2. When after a vowel there happens to be one of the liquid let- 



4S8 RULES FOR DIVIDING WORDS. 

ters, followed by another consonant, the said liquid is to be sepa- 
rated from it ; as, 

cal-care.. .. .. ,.dol-cire pal-pitare 

com-pire adem-piere. . ..riem-piuto 

con-dire ten- dine un-dici 

cer-care por-tare.. .. *. .dor-mire 

3. The same may be said when the liquid is followed by more 
consonants than one. 

In glese in- clinato com-plicato 

com-prare smem-brare. . . . ^con-tratto 

And not 

Ing-lese inc-linato comp-rare, &c. 

4. No syllable is to begin with two consonants of the same sort, 
such as double cc, double dd, &c. ; therefore in dividing a word 
having the said consonants, we are to do it thus; 

ac-cop-piare ac-com-miatare ac-cor-re 

ac- cat-tare scancel-lare ac-cet-tare 

5. Words having s followed by more consonants, are not to be 
divided in syllables ending in s ; therefore we are to spell 

p re-sto co-stanza so-scritto 

contra-sto ...... ri-spondere • . descritto 

And not 

pres to cos-tanza contras-to> &c. 

But if s belongs to the preposition, which forms a part of the 
word, it is not to be joined to the following letters; as, 

dis-trarre as-tenersi di$~tolto 

And not 

di-strarre a-stenersi .....di-stolto 

because those words are formed by trarre, tenersi, and tolto participle 
oitorre, and the prepositions a and du 

6. The following diphthongs cannot be separated ; 

cut, cie, do, ciu, scia, scie, scio, sciu 
gia, gie, gio, giuo, pia, pie, pio, piu 
fia, fie, fio, fin, mia, mie, mio, miei 
glia, glie, glio, gliuo, chia, chie, chio, chiu 
spiu, spie, spio, spin, sfia, sfie, sfio, sfiu 
gua, gue, gui, guo, gnuo, &c. &c. 

7. We conclude by saying that a line can never be terminated 
with a word that has an apostrophe ; therefore we are to spell 

del- 1 9 amor e un y a-nima Vim-pero 

and not dell, uri, l\ at the end of the line, and putting the rest in 
the beginning of the next line. 



OF COMPOUNDED WORDS. 4S9 

CHAPTER V. 

OF COMPOUNDED WORDS. 

Italians are accustomed to unite two or more words together 
in writing, and make a single one ; thus, from gentile uomo ) they 
write gentiluomo ; from ogni uno, they write ognuno ; and then they 
call them compounded words. 

On this subject we cannot lay down precise rules, nor ought any 
one to be so bold as to make similar compositions out of his own 
head ; but those only are to be adopted, which have been sanctioned 
by use. 

Compounded words may be divided into three classes ; the first 
comprehending those that take some letters, the second consisting 
of those that lose some letters, and the third shewing those that join 
together without either taking or losing any j all of which will be 
seen in the following lists. 

Compounded words taking letters. 

a canto accanto a costo accosto 

actio che... ..acciocche 

a dosso ^....addosso a dietro addietro 

a lato allato a meno ammeno 

a pena ....appena..., ........ a petto appetto 

a pie . appie ....... ....... a dentro...* addentro 

cioche .....ciocche. .......... .cola gill ....... ...colaggiii 

cola su ..*.... colassil da che....... dacche 

da poi .....dappoi ......da presso dappresso 

datorno .....dattorno ........ ..da vero ,..davvero 

epure eppure »fra tanto .frattanto 

tra tanto trattanto.... fra poco .frappoco 

gia che giacche. gia mai giammai 

gli lo glielo gli la ..gliela 

gli li glieli gli le gliele 

gli ne gliene la giu laggiu 

la su lassu la dove laddove 

ladentro laddentro ne pure .....neppure 

impercio che impercioccM mentre che mentrecche 

ne meno, .....nemmeno o vero ovvero 

o pure oppure o sia ossia 

piii che .piucche piu tosto piuttosto 

pero che perocche percio che...... ..percioccke 

se bene sebbene si fatto siffatto 

Compounded words losing letters. 

ajlora che allorche ancora che ancorche 

alloraquando allorquando ...... affine che.. affinche 



440 OF COMPOUNDED WORDS. 

dionde donde fino a tanto .finatianto 

fino che .finche 

infino a tanto infinatianto ogni altro ognaltro 

ogni ora ognora ogni uno ognuno 

ora mai ormai ora su orsu 

pure che purche pure ora ...purora 

quale ora qualora tutta ora tuttora 

sotto sopra sossopra sotto terra sotterra 

sino che sinche sino a tanto sinattanto 

Words that are not altered in being compounded. 

al fine . alfine awenga che avvengache 

anzi che anziche avvegna che avvegnache 

come che comeche dopo che dopoche 

indietro indietro in su insu 

insuso insuso in giu ingiu 

in giuso ingiuso in verso inverse* 

nulla meno nullameno nulla dimeno.... nulladimeno 

niente dimeno nientedimeno prima che primache 

presso che „..pressoc/ie oggi di °g§idi 

oggi giorno oggigiorno oggi mai oggimai 

sempre che sempreche secondo che secondoche 

tosto che tostoche tutto che tuttoche 

oltre cid oltrecio 

B. 10. 8. Quando per altro io non t'amassi, m' e accid che io viva, 
cara la vita tua. 

Nov. Ant. 75. Le balie de' fanciulli dicono, quando elli pian- 
gono, ecco il Re Ricciardo, acciocche come la morte fu temuto. 

B. 5. Proem. E con soave passo a' campi discesa, per V ampia 
pianura su per le rugiadose erbe, infinatianto che il sole fu alzato, con 
la sua compagnia, diportando se n' ando. 

B. 2. 9. II soldano comando, che incontanente Ambrogiuolo 
in alcuno alto luogo della citta fosse al sole legato ad un palo, 
ne quindi mai, infino a tanto che per se medesimo cadesse, levato 
fosse. 

B. 9. 1. Alessandro ancorche gran paura avesse, stette pur cheto. 

B. 1.5. Egli ancora che vecchio fosse, sent! subitamente non 
meno cocenti gli stimoli della carne, che sentiti avesse il suo 
siovane. 



OBSERVATIONS ON THE COMPOUNDED WORDS. 

1. The compounded words in the above lists are more justifiable, 
and consequently more frequently used at present; but the others 



RULES FOR PLACING THE ACCENT. 441 

are not entirely obsolete, and are found in old as well as modern 
authors of note. 

2. Gli lo, gli la, gli li, gli le, gli ne, are never to be used. 

3. In giuso, ingiuso, in suso, insuso, are not to be used. 

4. The above words are compounded of prepositions, conjunc- 
tions, and adverbs. 

5. Those compounded of two nouns, or a noun and verb, such as 
gentiluomo, gentildonna, stuzzicadenti, casticamatti are but few, and 
may be found in dictionaries. 

6. Those formed of verbs and pronouns conjunctive and relative, 
such as, mi s ti, si, ci, vi, lo, la, li, le, ne ; thus, vedermi, parti, dolen- 
dosi, &c. have been spoken of under the head of the Syntax of Pro- 
nouns conjunctive and relative, and likewise in the first chapter of 
this Part, in laying down rules for retrenching words. 



CHAPTER VI. 

RULES FOR PLACING THE ACCENT. 

Accent is the laying of a peculiar stress of the voice on a certain 
letter or syllable in a word, that it may be better heard than the 
rest, or distinguished from them. 

Italians distinguish only two accents, viz. — the grave and the 
acute. The grave is marked with an oblique, but very small line, 
from left to right, and resting on the vowel on which the stress of 
the voice is laid, as in the following words :— 

egli porto regno adoro 

io portero amero lodero 

The acute is a contrary mark to that of the grave ; as — 

il porto il cammino il libro 

The acute accent, however, is scarcely ever used in Italian, unless 
it is to distinguish one word from another, such as, gid, already, from 
gia, imperfect of gire ; bdlia, a nurse, from balia, a prey ; dncora, an 
anchor, from ancora, again ; and even in this case the acute accent 
is left out if no ambiguity occurs in the composition. 

Having thus premised what is the nature of the accent, we will 
now proceed to explain what are the words which require to be 
marked with it. 

1. The grave accent is placed on the last vowel of the third per- 
son singular of the second imperfect of all verbs, when that person 
is regular ; as — 

egli amo porto crede vende .Jim.. ....senti 

u8 



442 RULES FOR PLACING THE ACCENT. 

But if that person has an irregular termination, it is not marked 
with any accent ; as— 

egli teviette lesse resse corresse, &c. 

2. The grave accent is placed on the last letter of the first and 
third person singular of the future of all verbs ; as — 

io sarb avrb .... amerb . . . .porter b . . temerb . .finirb, fye. 

egli sard .... avrd . . . . amerd ... . temerd . . . .finird. . . . sentird, fyc. 

It is to be observed that the first and third person of the future, 
as well as the third person of the second imperfect, are to be spelt 
without the accent when they become compounded words ; as — 

egli amommi, compound of amb and mi 
iofarollo, compound offarb and lo 
egli saratti, compound of sard and ti 

3. The grave accent is put on the last letter of nouns ending in 
id, which in English end in ty, and in Latin in tas ; as— 

cittd calamitd..., libertd purita, fyc. 

But if in English they do not end in ty, a is not accented; as — 

vita visita calanuta meta 

For the same reason adjectives or participles ending in ta are 
never accented ; as — 

ardita trita amdta .portdta, fyc. 

From this rule are excepted — metd, baccald, carancd, sofa, taffeta, 
caffe, canape, which, though they have no analogy with the English 
words as above, are nevertheless marked with the grave accent. 

4. The grave accent is put on the last letter of nouns ending 
in u, and on the i of di, and all names of days ending in i ; as — 

la virtu la servitil la tribii, fyc. 

lune&i .......martedi mercoledi, fyc. 

5. Monograms, such as a, i, o, are never marded with accents, 
except e third person singular of the present tense of essere, to dis- 
tinguish it from the conjunction. 

Monosyllables having no diphthong, such as ho, so, ha, re,fu, sta, 
la, li, lo, le, $c. are never marked with an accent, as they can be pro- 
nounced only in one way, except when the same word has a double 
signification; as — 

di of di day 

da from da he gives 

la the or it Id there 

li the or them ..li there 

ne ofit ne .....neither 

si it is si yes 

se if se himself 



RULES FOR PLACING THE APOSTROPHE. 443 

But if monosyllables are distinguished by a diphthong, such 
as gid, pie, do, giil, piu, &c. the last letter is always to be marked 
with an accent, otherwise they might be pronounced differently, and 
have a different meaning; as, gid, with the accent on the last letter, 
means already ; with the accent on the i, it signifies he went; pie, 
"with the accent on the last letter, means foot; with the accent on 
the i, it signifies pious persons. 

7. All words compounded with che are accented ; as — 

acciocche. ....... henche per che talche, tyc. 

Except che, anche, and qualche. 

This exception extends only to relatives and conjunctions, for che, 
when an adverb, is accented thus, che. With respect to adjectives of 
the feminine gender, such as,poche 9 cuoche,vacche, their last letter is 
never marked with an accent. 

8. The grave accent is put on the following adverbs : — 

Cold, costi, costd, lassie, laggiu, colaggiu, colassu, lassie, insu, ingiii, 
quaggiu, and a few more. 

Qui and qua may be marked with an accent at pleasure. 

9. Tre is never accented, but all its derivatives, such as ventitri, 
irentatre, quarantatre, are never spelt without it. 



CHAPTER VII. 

RULES FOR PLACING THE APOSTHOPHE. 

The apostrophe is a mark made like a comma, which is put at 
the top side of a letter, to denote that the word is abridged ; 

V uorno, r onore, gF ingrati, F anima, &c. 

1. Uno loses its last letter and takes an apostrophe, only before 
feminine nouns beginning with a vowel ; as, 

un 9 anima, un 9 ingrata, un urna, &c. 

The same may be said of ventuno, trentuno y and all other words 
ending in uno > such as alcuno, niuno, cadauno, nessuno, veruno. 

2. Lo, la, li, gli, le, nello, sullo, collo, are abridged, and marked 
with an apostrophe. See the articles, page 47, articles joined with 
prepositions, page 51, and relatives, page 95. 

3. The article il, and substantives beginning with im and in, lose 
their i, and take an apostrophe. See the Retrenchment of Words, 
page 429. 

4. The pronouns conjunctive and relative, such as mi, ti, si, ci^ 



4M OF QUANTITY, 

vi, ne, are abridged of their last letter, and marked with an apos- 
trophe. See page 96. 

5. Demonstrative pronouns, such as questo, quello, cotesto, &c, 
are retrenched and marked with an apostrophe. See page 101. 

6. Indeterminate pronouns, such as altro, tanto, quanto, are 
abridged and marked with an apostrophe. See page 108. 

7. It must be considered as a general rule, that all words abridged 
before a vowel, are to have an apostrophe instead. Ond ei disse for 
onde ei, ov 9 andate for ove andate, la sua bell 9 alma, for bella alma, 
quand 9 avrofatto for quando avrd, &c, From this rule are excepted, 

1. Uno, and all words ending in uno, such as ventuno, trentuno, 
alcuno, niuno, veruno, which, &c. being abridged before a masculine 
noun beginning with a vowel, are not marked with an accent; thus 
we spell, un uomo, un amico, ventun anno, alcun odore, niun amico, 
nessun odore, verun anello, &c. and not u?i 9 uomo, un' amico. 

2. Buon, Signor, are frequently found without an apostrophe 
before masculine nouns beginning with a vowel ; but we advise the 
learner to write them entire before a vowel; thus, bitono amico, 
Signore Antonio. 

5. Fin, infin, sin, insin, may take or omit the apostrophe before 
another word beginning with a vowel ; thus we may write, fin ad 
oggi, ov fin 9 ad oggi, sin a domani, or sin a domani. 

The following words may take an apostrophe before words begin- 
ning with a vowel or consonant : a' for ai, be 9 for belli, co 9 for coi, 
de" for dei, da' for dai, e 9 for ei,di 9 for dici,fe' for fece,pe 9 for pei, que 9 
for quei, qua* for quali, ve 9 for vedi, vo"* for voglio, vuo' for vuoi, se 9 for 
set the second person of the present tense of essere, su> for sui, all of 
which may be used in prose. There are some more which are only 
used in poetry ; such are, me 9 for meglio or mezzo, cape" for capelli, 
/rate for fratelli, com' for come, to 9 for togli, ma 9 for mali, morta' for 
mortali, figliuo 1 for figliuoli, lacciuo 9 for lacciuoli, tuo for tuoi, sua 9 for 
xuoi, mie for miei, and a great many more. 



CHAPTER VIII. 

OF QUANTITY. 

Quantity is that time which is occupied in pronouncing a word. 

Words, in Italian, are pronounced three ways, viz. lunghe long, 
brevi short, sdrucciole short or slippery. 

To pronounce them lunghe, is effected by placing a light stress on 
each syllable, except on the last but one, which is to be stronger ; 
as, nomindre, contaminato, inanimire, &c. 



OF QUANTITY. 445 

To pronounce them brevi, is effected by placing the stress on the 
last vowels, which are always marked with a grave accent ; as caritd, 
perd, consiglid, sard. 

To pronounce them sdrucciole, is effected by placing the stress on 
the last syllable but two or more, and pronouncing the other two 
without any stress at all ; as, nomino, contdmino, discernono, sareb- 
bero, &c. 

The distinction of brevi and sdrucciole has never been made by 
grammarians. They have distinguished those diverse words under 
the name of brevi only; but as there is a great difference in their 
pronunciation, we thought such a distinction well worth the notice 
of learners. The name of sdrucciole is not, however, a word of 
our own creation ; it is a term used by poets, who give it to those 
verses (versi sdruccioli) whose last word is sdrucciola, or a word pro- 
nounced with a stress on the last syllable but two or more, as we 
said above. 

As no utterance which is void of proportion, can be agreeable 
to the ear, and as quantity or proportion of time in utterance, 
greatly depends on a due attention to the accent, it is necessary for 
learners who would attain a just and pleasing delivery, to be masters 
of that point. But to be so, in Italian, the learner will find it 
difficult; because the Italian language has not so many laws of 
Prosody as the Latin. 

Notwithstanding all this, we will lay down some rules on this 
subject, which, if due attention is paid to them, will in a great 
measure remove the difficulty attending on this important point. 

1. All words whose last vowel is accented, are pronounced short; 
that is, the stress of the voice is to be laid rather strong on the 
accented vowel ; as, mend, camminb, porterd, caritd, calamitd, canape, 
&c. And those, whose last vowel is not accented, are commonly 
pronounced long ; that is, the stress or emphasis of the voice is laid 
on the last syllable but one ; as, abitatore, cacciatore, dozzina, impera- 
trice, forndro, cappelldjo. 

2. Words of two syllables are subject to the same rules ; as, dono, 
cane, pane, perd, metd, cold; except the conjunctive pronouns 
meeting with the relatives, viz. melo, telo, selo, glielo, celo, velo, 
mene, tene, sene, gliene, cene, vene, and all their derivatives, such 
as, mela, meli, mele, tela, teli, tele, &c, which are pronounced short, 
that is, the stress of the voice is laid on the last vowel, as if it were 
accented, the reason is, that these words may be spelt separately ; 
thus, me lo, te lo ; in this case, as monosyllables, they are pro- 
nounced as if they had an accent. 

For the words sdrucciole we have no rule to give, but we advise 
the student to consult a dictionary. 



446 OF QUANTITY. 

With respect to words derived from verbs, we have accented 
them in treating of their conjugations ; but as there are many verbs 
of the first conjugation, whose present tenses of the indicative, 
imperative, and subjunctive, are pronounced differently, we will 
give a list of them, together with some general observations. 

1. Verbs whose infinitives end in are, and have only three syllables, 
have the present tenses of all moods pronounced with the accent 
on the last syllable but one; as, amdre, dmo, ami, dma, amidmo, 
amdte, except the third person plural, which has the accent on the 
last syllable but two ; as, dmano, amino, 

2. Verbs whose infinitives end in are or iare, and are of more 
than three syllables, follow the same rule with those of three 
syllables, provided those terminations are preceded by two conso- 
nants, such as atterrdre, annulldre, abbraccidre, travaglidre, making 
atterro, annullo, abbrdccio, travdglio. 

3. Verbs in iare, which termination is preceded by only one 
consonant, have the present tenses of all the moods pronounced 
with the accent on the last syllable but two, except the first and 
second person plural, which have the accent on the last syllable but 
one ; as, gloridre, glorio, glorii, gloria, gloridmo, gloridte, gloriano, 
&c. 

List of Verbs whose present tenses of the three moods are to be 
pronounced according to the third observation on verbs in iare. 

abbacinare......... abilitare abitare abbominare 

abbrividare accomodare accreditare accumulare 

agitare aggregare alitare ammarginarsi 

ammorbidare animare ..annichilare anticipare 

apostatare approssimare .. ..arbitrare arginare 

arruvidare astrologare augurare azzimare 

agevolare biasimare buccinare calcitrare 

eapacitare celebrare ........ brontolare calcolare 

collocare comodare computare concitare 

confabulare conglutinare . . . . congregare coniare 

congratularsi .. 

contaminare convocare corroborare crapulare 

crepitare cresimare crocidare crogiolare 

debilitare decapitare ....... decimare denegare 

depositare deputare depurare derogare 

desinare dilucidare direditare dirugginare 

disanimare disarborare ...... disculminare disgregare 

disoppilare disputare ........ dissipare dominare 

dubitare eccitare effeminare elevare 

emancipare emulare epilogare equivocare 

ereditare esaminare esercitare esterminare 

facilitare febbricitare felicitare filosofare 



OF PUNCTUATION. 447 

flebotomare folgorare fulminare garofanare 

geminare germinare.. giubilare gracidare 

gratularsi gravitare illuminare imbalsamare 

immaginare impelagare imputare inalberare 

incorporare indebitarsi infervorare innovare 

infra cidare infrigidare ingraminare *....interpretare 

inoculare insudiciare instigare.... inyerminare 

intersecare intimare intonacare legittimare 

irritare lagrimare lapidare .....liquidare 

lievitare limitare limosinare macchinare 

litigare logorare lucidare.. magnificare 

macinare maculare manipolare meritare 

memorare menomare mentovare mugolare 

militare modulare ..mormorare ..,. ..nobilitare 

naufragare . navigare necessitare ordinare 

nominare obbligare occupare partecipare 

originare , palpitare parafrasare precipitare 

peggiorare pettinare .. piovigginare prorogare 

preparare ...procrastinare ....propagare .rammaricarsi 

provocare pullulare rammarginare ...reputare 

rammorbidare recitare remigare risuscitare 

rimuginare rincorporare rinfrigidare .. .. ..scalpitare 

revocare ruminare sanguinare scrutinare 

scomodare scorporare screditare separare 

gegregare seguitare ......... seminare simulare 

sfiocinare sibilare sgombinare soffocare 

sindacare smemorare smenovare spasimare 

solidare sollecitare spampanare spropositare 

spelagare ....spettorarsi. spiritare stipulare 

squittinare stampanare sterrainare strologare 

stomatacare .strascinare strepitare ..suscitare 

sverginare suffumigare surrogare titubare 

tenebrare terminare tiepidare vaticinare 

torbidare trepidare ..validare vigilare 

vedovare vegetare ..... ....ventilare vomitare 

visitare ultimare ......... tilulare 



CHAPTER IX. 

OF PUNCTUATION. 

Punctuation is the art of dividing a written composition into sen- 
tences or parts of sentences, by points or stops, for the purpose of 
marking the different pauses which the sense and an accurate pro- 
nunciation require. 



448 OF PUNCTUATION. 

The principal points, or stops, or marks, in Italian, are six, 
namely — 

1. la virgola , the comma 

2. il punto e virgola ; the semicolon 

Z. il mezzo punto : the colon 

4. il punto fermo the full stop 

5. il punto interrogativo .. ? the interrogatory point 

6. il punto ammirativo .... ! the exclamatory point 

To which may be added, Vinterruzione, the interruption or dash, 
laparentesi, the parenthesis. There are other marks, but as they are 
chiefly used by printers, we refrain from speaking of them. 

OF THE COMMA. 

The comma represents the shortest pause, and is used to separate 
those parts of a sentence, which, though very closely connected in 
sense and construction, require a pause between them. 

In laying down examples to illustrate the following rules, we shall 
translate some of those, the punctuation of which is quite different 
from the English. 



RULE I. 

Simple sentences, the several words of which closely relate to 
each other, have, as in English, no need of commas, but a full stop 
at the end, if required ; as — 

Gelli. Egli e pur una gran cosa avere a perder V essere. 
B. 10. 8. La bellezza di costei merita d' essere amata da ciasche- 
duno. 

A simple sentence, when it is a long one, and the nominative case 
is accompanied with inseparable adjuncts, may in English admit of 
a pause immediately before the verb, but in Italian no pause is 
required. 

Cavalcanti. La severita de* ministri delle leggi non aveva forza 
di difendere dall' armi la disarmata moltitudine ; the severity of the 
administrators of laws, had no power to defend from arms the 
unarmed multitude. 

If the connexion of the different parts of a simple sentence is 
interrupted by an imperfect phrase, in English a comma is usually 
introduced before the beginning and at the end of this phrase ; in 
Italian no commas are required. 

Cavalcanti. Per lo che dobbiamo con somma riverenza ubbidire 
a* nostri maggiori; therefore we ought, with great respect, to obey 
our superiors. 



OY PUNCTUATION. 499 



RULE II. 

When two or more nouns occur in the same construction, they 
are parted by a comma, though they are separated by a conjunc- 
tion, but they should never be separated from the verb by a 
comma, 

Boc. Introd. Uomini, e donne abbandonarono la propia citta, le 
propie case, i lor luoghi, ed i lor parenti ; men and women left their 
own city, houses, their places, and relations. 

B. 10. 8. II vostro awedimento, il vostro consiglio, e la vostra 
deliberazione aveva Sofronia data a Gisippo ; your perspicuity, 
your advice, and resolution, had bestowed Sophronia upon Gi- 
sippus. 



RULE III. 

Two or more adjectives belonging to the same substantive 
are in English separated by commas ; in Italian, it may be done at 
pleasure. 

B. 10. 9. La quale essendo bellissima, e grande della persona. 

B. 9. 6. Alia giovane avea posto gli occhi addosso un giovanetto 
leggiadro, e piacevole, e gentile uomo della nostra citta. 

Varchi. Alcuni di grande e famoso nome nelle lettere Greche 
dicono. 

Guicciardini. Illustrata sommamente....dallo splendore di molte 
nobilissime e bellissime citta. 

Buommattei. Onde sara facil cosa provare la nostra (lingua) 
essere della Latina e della Greca piu degna. 



RULE IV. 

Two or more verbs or participles with their adjuncts, having the 
same nominative case, and following one another, are separated by a 
comma; as, 

B. 9. 6. Ismontati adunque i due giovani, e nello alberghetto 
entrati, primieramente i loro ronzini adagiarono, ed appresso.... 
insieme con V oste cenarono. 

When participles are followed by words depending on them, they 
are, together with their words, separated from the rest of the sen- 
tence by a two commas, one of which is put before, and another 
after. 

B. 10. 8. Tito, preso il suo Gisippo, e molto della sua diffidenza 
ripresolo, gli fece maravigliosa festa. 



450 OF PUNCTUATION. 

But if the participle does not govern any word, it is not necessary 
to separate it by commas. 

B. 10. 9. Messer Torello destatosi gitto un gran grido. 

Gerunds, or active participles, are never separated from their 
nominative cases ; but they are so from the verb which is the attri- 
bute of the same nominative case, by a comma ; as, 

B. 10. 9. II quale Y abate e' monaci veggendo fuggire, si mara- 
vigliarono. 

B. 10. 9. Allora il saladino piti non potendo tenersi, teneramente 
V abbraccio. 



RULE V. 

Two or more adverbs immediately succeeding one another are in 
English separated by a comma; in Italian, no comma is requisite; 
as, 

Cavalcanti. Come potremo noi dirittamente e felicemente operare 
giaramai ? How can we act rightly, and happily ? 



RULE VI. 

Expressions in a direct address are, as in English, separated from 
the rest of the sentence by commas ; as, 

B, 10. 8. Pretore, i miei fati mi traggono a dover solvere la dura 
question di costoro. 

BuommatteL II silenzio vostro, genemsi Uditori, P attenzione e 
benevolenza ch' io scorgo in voi. 



RULE VII. 

Nouns in apposition, that is, nouns added to other nouns in the 
same case, by way of explication or illustration, when accompanied 
with adjuncts, may or may not have a comma before them. 

Cavalcanti. Prospero Colonna, capitano tie' nostri tempi eccel- 
lentissimo. 

Segni. Era arrivato Solimano a Bettis, cittd posta nel paese di 
Diaberca. 

Bembo. II Signor Anton Maria figliuolo del capitano. 

Bembo. Era d' alquante genti, Retici e Norici, signore e Prence 
Gismondo fratelh di Federico Imperatore de' Romani. 



OF PUNCTUATION. 451 



RULE VIII. 

A simple member of sentence, being put in the midst of another 
sentence, is to be distinguished by two commas ; as, 

Buommattei. lo, se quesf e, vi ringrazio. 

Buommattei. A me bastera, se mi verrdfatto, di mantenermi quel 
(nome) di veridico. 



RULE IX. 

The relatives che and quale with their adjuncts, may or may not 
be separated from their antecedents by a comma, but they are always 
separated by a comma from the verb which is the attribute of the 
antecedent, or the rest of the sentence. 

B. 10. 8. Gisippo, costringendolo da una parte Pesilio, che aveva 
delta sua cittd, e a? altra l'amore, il quale portava debitamente alia grata 
amistd di Tito, a divenir Romano s' accordo. 

Buommattei. Le lodi che si possono dare ad una lingua, sono di 
due sorti. 

The same may be said when che and quale are oblique cases. 



RULE X. 

Che, being the correspondent particle of piu, meno, meglio, peggio, 
piuttosto, si, tanto, tali, is separated from the first part of the sentence 
by a comma ,* as, 

Cavalcanti. I quali hanno voluto che appresso di me vagliano 
piu i loro comandamenti, ehe appresso di loro ie mie oneste escusa- 
zioni. 

B. 8. 9. E sappiate che quelle camere sono non meno odorifere, 
che sieno i bossoli delle spezie della bottega vostra. 

B. 5. 1. Egliriusci il piu leggiadro e il meglio costumato, che altro 
giovane alcuno, che nel? isola fosse di Cipri. 

B. 1. 7. Ma nel pensiere di messer Cane era caduto, ogni cosa 
che gli si donasse, vie peggio esser perduta, che se nel fuoco fosse 
stata gettata. 

Cavalcanti. Voleva piuttosto nel suo esercito imperito e ubbi- 
diente soldato, che molto perito e poco ubbidiente. 

Firenzuola. Gli diede della scure sulla testa si piacevolmente 5 
che al primo colpo li fece lasciar la vita. 

B. o. 6, Tanto disse, tanto scongiuro, die ella vinta con lui si 
pacefico. 



452 OF PUNCTUATION. 

Che, being a conjunction, whether expressed or understood, is 
separated from the verb by which it is governed, by a comma; 
as, 

B. 2. 7. Ti priego, che le mie cose, ed ella ti sieno raccomman- 
date. 

B. 10. 8. E penso, piu non fossero da comportare le lor novelle: 
that is, e penso, che piu non fossero. 

Che, being preceded by quello, quel, cid, may or may not be sepa- 
rated from them by a comma. 

B. 5. 10. M' e egli assai buono maestro, in farmi dilettare di 
quello, che egli si diletta. 

B. 3. 2. Avendo l'animo pieno d' ira, e di mal talento per quello 
che vedeva gli era fatto usci della camera. 

B. Fiam. Mattamente fa, chi lascia quel, ch y egli ha per acquistar 
quel che non ha, se gia quel, che lasciasse, non fosse picciolissima cosa 
per acquistare una grandissima. 

B. Fiam. E chi dubita, che non sia maggior dolore il perder do, 
che altri tiene, che quel che spera di tenere. 



RULE XL 

Alcuni, altri, altretali, anzi, cost, come, ma, ma anche or ancora, ne, 
neppure, nemmeno, nondimeno,nuUadimeno, non per tanto, o, ora, ovvero, 
pure, quale, quanto, tanto, tali, being the correspondent words of 
others going before, are separated from the first part of the sentence 
by a comma; as, 

Sannazzaro. Era 1' occidente coperto di nuvoli, quali cerulei, 
quai violati, alcuni sanguigni, altri gialli. 

B. Introd. Ne altra cosa alcuna ci udiamo se Don, i cotali son 
morti, e gli altretali son per morire. 

Cavalcanti. E veggo che, siccome quelle ne prestano di parlare 
amplissima materia, cost ancora la facolta....ne tolgano. 

Villani. Della venuta de' cavalieri, i Fiorentini furono altrettanto 
contend, come se fosse venuto il duca in persona. 

B. Lett. Le ricchezze dipingono 1* uomo, e cogli loro colori cuo- 
prono, e nascondono non solamente i difetti del corpo, ma ancora 
quegli delP anima. 

B. 1. 1. Che uomo e costui il quale ne vecchiezza, ne infermita, 
ne paura di morte....dalla sua malvagita V hanno potuto rimuovere. 

B. 1. 9. Egli era di si rimessa vita,.... che non che egli 1' altrui onte 
con giustizia vendicava, anzi infinite con vituperevole vilta, a lui 
fattene, sosteneva. 

B. 7. 9. La qual cosa quantunque in assai novelle sia stato dimos» 



OF PUNCTUATION. 453 

trato, nondimeno il mi credo molto piu con una che dirvi intendo 
mostrare. 

B. Fiam. Ed avvegnache la felice fortuna ritorni, non pertanto 
agli afflitti incresce di rallegrarsi. 

B. 10. 8. A te sta omai o il volerti qui appresso di me dimorare, o 
volerti....in Acaja tornare. 

Varchi. La corruzione altro non e che uno trapasso, ovvere 
passaggio dall' essere al non essere ; that is, che o uno trapasso, ovvero 
passaggio. * 

Varchi. Dicono tale essere la lingua volgare per rispetto alia 
Latina, quale la feccia al vino. 

Firenzuola. E quanto piu fendeva il querciuolo, tanto metteva 
piii giu un altro conio. 

These rules, we think, are quite sufficient for the imformation of 
the student, who, by paying attention to them, will, we presume, 
be enabled to insert the comma in its proper place. 

OF THE SEMICOLON, COLON, AND FULL STOP. 

The semicolon represents a pause, double that of the comma 3 
and is used for dividing a compound sentence into two or more 
parts, not so closely connected as those which are separated by a 
comma, nor yet so little dependent on each other, as those which 
are dintinguished by a colon. 

The colon is a pause double that of the semicolon, and it is used to 
divide a sentence into two or more parts less connected than those 
which are separated by a semicolon. 

The full stop is a pause double that of the colon, and is put after a 
complete sentence. 

The following examples will shew the use of these three points or 
stops. 

Casa Galat. Si fece unaroba di sciamito cremisi j e dinanzi al petto 
un motto a lettere d' oro : egli e come Dio vuole; e nelle spalle di 
dietro simili lettere, che diceano : e' sara come Dio vorra. 

B. 10. 6. Ma questo mio beneficio, operato in voi questa notte, 
merita alcun guiderdone ; e percio io voglio che voi non mi neghiate 
una grazia, la quale io vi domandero. 

B, 10. 6 Messer Gentile ailora disse: Madonna, ciascun vostro 
parente, ed ogni Bolognese credono...voi esser morta. 

After the words cremisi, vuole, guiderdone, a semicolon is put, 
because what follows is not a whole member of a sentence, but a part, 
and consequently the pause is not great ; and after the words oro, 
diceano, disse, the colon is placed, because there the members of 



454 OF PUNCTUATION. 

the sentence end, and that which follows has no connexion with 
the preceding. 

With respect to the semicolon and colon no precise rules can 
be laid down, the same word may be separated from the first mem- 
ber of the sentence by one or the other, according to the sense of it ; 
but the discerning student, by paying attention to the definition of 
them, will, undoubtedly, be enabled to make a proper use of them; 
especially as they are in many cases used as in English. As to the 
full stop, it is used as in English, without exception. 

OF THE INTERROGATORY POINT. 

A note of interrogation is used as in English, at the end of an 
interrogative sentence : that is, when a question is asked; as, 

Varchi. E come risponderete alle loro ragioni ? 

But when the sentence is rather long, or composed of different 
members, having a connexion with one another, the note of inter- 
rogation is differently used from what it is in English ; that is, in 
English, it is put at the end of each member, and in Italian only 
at the farthest end; as, 

B. 10 8. Quali stati, qua' meriti avrebbon fatto Gisippo non 
curar di perdere i suoi parenti, e quei di Sofronia, non curar de' 
disonesti mormorii del popolazzo, non curar delle beffe, e degli 
scherni, per soddisfare all' amico, se non costei? What greatness, 
what rewards, could make him heedless of disobliging his friends, 
as well as Sophronia's ? despise the unjust murmurs of the people, 
insults, mockery, to serve his friend, but this ? 

The above rule is the most approved of, yet we find the note of 
interrogation at the end of each member, though they have a con- 
nexion with each other. 

OF THE EXCLAMATORY POINT. 

The note of exclamation is applied to expressions of sudden 
emotion, surprise, joy, grief, &c. 

This note in Italian is always put at the end of the sentence, and 
in English is sometimes repeated in the same sentence; as, 

Gelli. Oh come spesso cascano tutti i vecchi in questo errore ! 
Oh ! how often do old people fall in this error ! 

Gelli. Oh come son vere queste cose ! Oh ! how true those 
things are 1 

Another Example for the Interrogatory Point. 

Gelli, Negherami tu, che la vecchiezza non arrechi seco tante 



OF PUNCTUATION. 455 

infermita, e ch* ella indebolisca tanto li corpi umani, ch' e* sia da 
fuggirla, e meriti d' essere biasimata molto ? Will you deny that 
old age is accompanied with infirmities ? that it weakens in such a 
manner human bodies, that it ought to be avoided, and that it is 
justly blamed ? 

Another Example for the Exclamatory Point. 

Cavalcanti. O amor della liberta quanto sei efficace 1 carita 
della patria quanto sei potente, che quegli effetti subitamente pro- 
duci, i quali da un lungo uso, da una molta esperienza, da una certa 
e lunga disciplina sogliono esser prodotti ! O, love of liberty ! how 
efficacious thou art ! O, patriotic charity i how powerful thou art ! 
— thus to produce all at once those effects which are wont to be the 
result of great experience, and a certain and long discipline ! 

OF THE DASH. 

The dash or interruption in Italian, is not the same as in English, 
in which it is marked thus — ; but it is done by putting three or 
four dots one after the other, thus, ...., and it is used when the 
sentence breaks off abruptly; as, 

Bembo. Ora se esso pure la vorra fare, io la terro per uomo, che 
.... ma non voglio dire altro. 

B. 10. 10. Madonna, se io non voglio morire, a me conviene fare 
quelle-, che il mio signor mi comanda. Egli m' ha comandato, che 
io prenda questa vostra figliuola, e ch' io....e non disse piu. 

OF THE PARENTHESIS. 

A parenthesis is a clause containing some necessary information 
or useful remark, introduced into the body of the sentence obliquely, 
and which may be omitted without injuring the grammatical con- 
struction. This clause, when long, is enclosed within these marks, 
( ) ; and if it is short, it is enclosed within two commas. 

Gelli. Giusto, io ho piu volte considerato meco medesima, che 
tutte quelle cose, per le quali biasimano gli uomini attempati la 
vecchiezza (che sai che noi usiamo spesso con vecchi, ritrovandosi 
molto volentieri que' che sono d ? una eta medesima a ragionare in- 
sieme) si possono ridurre a quattro cagioni. 

Buommattei. A me bastera, se mi vcrrafatto, di mantenermi quel 
(nome) di veridico. 



456 OF CAPITAL LETTERS. 

CHAPTER X. 

OK CAPITAL LETTERS. 

Salviati established the following rules for using capital letters, 
and all writers that came after him have adhered to them. — 
The student then is to begin with a capital. — 

1. The first word of every chapter, letter, and any other piece of 
writing. 

2. The first word after a full stop, and after a note of interroga- 
tion or exclamation, provided two or more interrogative or excla- 
mative sentences are independent of one another ; as, 

B. 10. 8. Chi avrebbe Tito senza alcuna dilazione fatto liberalis- 
simo a comunicare il suo ampissimo patrimonio con Gisippo, al 
quale la fortuna il suo aveva tolto, se non costei? Chi avrebbe 
Tito senza alcuna suspizione fatto ferventissimo a concedere la 
sorella a Gisippo, il quale vedeva proverissimo, ed in estrema miseria 
posto, se non costei ? 

Cavalcanti. Ahi pigra Italia, e quanto fia che dal lungo tuo sonno 
ti svegli ? Ahi ingrata che abbandoni la salute di coloro, i quali 
insieme con quella 1' onor tuo col proprio sangue difendono I 
Ahi potentissima e generosissima Francia, come puoi tu si atroce 
spettacolo de' tuoi fedelissimi amici, in estremo pericolo posti, 
oziosa riguardare ? 

But if there happens to be several of the interrogative or excla* 
matory sentences together, which depend upon one another, all of 
them except the first are to begin with a small letter, unless it is a 
proper name ; as, 

B. Let. E chi sara colui si trascurato, che d* esser povero si 
vergogni, riguardando il Romano imperio aver la poverta avuta 
a fondamento ? recandosi a memoria Quinzio Cincinnato aver 
lavorata la terra ? Marco Curio dagli ambasciatori di Pirro essere 
stato trovato sopra una piccola panchetta sedere al fuoco, e man- 
giare in iscodella di legho, e, dette parole convenienti alia grandezza 
dell* animo suo, avere indietro mandati i tesori di Pirro ? e Fab- 
bricio Licinio i doni de* Sanniti? 

Buommattei. O felice paese dove si pregiata lingua naturalmente 
si parla ! o fortunato Cielo, che a si degno paese influisci le tue 
virtu ! 

3. The appellations of the deity, as, Die, Iddio, Creatore, Ente 
Supremo, Provvidenza Divina, &c. and also pronouns belonging to 
these appellations, as, amiamo Colui che ci ha creati, acciocche Egli 
ci conservi. 

4. Proper names and surnames of persons and mythological 



OF CAPITAL LETTERS. 457 

deities, names of places, mountains, rivers; as, Tito, Gisippo, 
Stramba, Pampinea, Apollo, Cupido, Venere, Napoli, Roma, Vesuvio, 
Etna, il Tevere, il Tamigi, &c. 

5. With respect to the names of nations, they begin with a capital 
letter ; as, un Romano, un Inglese, un Francese. But when they 
are used adjectively, Salvini says, and with him several modern 
grammarians, that tney must be spelt with a small letter; as, donna 

francese, mercante italiano, capitano russo ; but we find them spelt 
with a capital letter in several modern editions, and especially those 
printed at Milan, which are counted to be the best. The following 
are examples. 

B. let. E chi cid non crede, riguardi agli Assirj ed Egiziaci re tra 
le dilicatezze e gli odori Arabici effeminati. 

Cavalcanti. E inalzato al cielo con eterne lodi il popolo Ateniese. 

Firenzuola. E per parlar teste della nostra lingua Toscana, io 
ho veduti sonetti della sorella madonna Veronica. 

Buommattei. Dio buono ! Di che si pregiano tanto la lingua 
Latinao Greca? 

We may therefore infer, that the first letter of adjectives de- 
rived from the proper names of places, may be either capital or 
small. 

6. The first word of a quotation, introduced after a colon, or 
when it is in a direct form ; as, 

B. 4. 2. Usano i volgari un cosi fatto proverbio : CM e reo, e 
buono e tenuto, pud fare il male, e non e creduto. 

Passavanti. II terzo modo e detto la gloria vana.... Delia quale 
vanita, dice il Profeta Jeremia : Gli uomini sono andati dietro alia 
vanita, e sono fatti vani. Onde Salomone, considerando in queste 
cose create questa vanita, diceva: II mondo e vanita di vanitadi, e 
ogni cosa e vanita. 

7. The first word of what is introduced after a colon, as said by 
another, not by the author ; as, 

B. 4. 2. Disse allora Donna Mestola : E chi vi gastigo cosi ? 
Disse Frate Alberto : Io il vi diro. 

B. 4. 2. II quale io appresso domandai, perch e cio fatto avesse, ed 
egli rispose : Percio che tu presumesti oggi di riprendere le celestiali 
bellezze di Madonna Lisetta. 

8. The appellatives used instead of proper names, such as, medico, 
maestro, avvocato, ckirurgo, &c. are generally spelt with a capital 
letter; as, 

B. 4 io. Ruggieri.... rispose.... che andato era ad albergare dalla 
fante del Maestro Mazzeo. 

B.4. 10. II Medico udendo costei.... rispose. 
B. 4. 10. La quale tanto fece che alio Stadico ando davanti. 

x 



458 OF CAPITAL LETTERS. 

9. Words used in a direct address are spelt with a capital 
letter. 

Buommattei. Non vi rincresca, Signori, ascoltar anche di queste 
quattro parole. 

Tolomei. Io crederei, Giudici, che solo il ricordarsi qual sia stato 
Leone per lo tempo addietro, fosse a ciascuno chiara testimonianza 
qual egli sia nel tempo presente. 

But if they are accompanied with an adjective, this adjective is to 
be spelt with a small letter. 

Buommattei. II silenzio vostro, generosi Uditori. 
Tolomei. Prima dimmi, o giovane Accusatore. 

10. The first word of every line in poetry. 

Other words, expressive of dignities, sciences, arts, &c. may begin 
with capitals when they are remarkably emphatical, or the principal 
subject of the composition. 



END OF THE GRAMMAR. 



APPENDIX. 459 



APPENDIX. 



OF THE FIGURATIVE SYNTAX. 

The figurative or irregular Syntax, is that construction which 
implies some departure from simplicity of expression, or rather 
that construction which does not follow the general order, and the 
rules of grammar ; but by either adding something to, or taking 
from a sentence, or by inverting it, bestows grace and elegance on 
composition. 

It is not our intention, however, to speak here of all the figures 
of the imagination and the passions, such as metaphors, allegories, 
comparisons, &c. These are common to ail languages, and a man 
of learning, who is well acquainted with his own language, will not 
be at a loss in making use of them in any language he may happen 
to learn ; but we intend to speak of those figures, which are pecu- 
liar to the Italian language only; we shall, therefore, enumerate 
them, with proper explanations, in order that the student may, 
after an attentive perusal, not only be enabled to compose sentences 
and phrases with perspicuity, elegance, and energy, but also to 
distinguish them, when they meet his eyes, and thus to enjoy the 
beauties of good writers. 

The grammatical figures most in use are four in the Italian 
language, viz. 

L'Ellipsi The Ellipsis 

II Pleonasmo The Pleonasm 

L'Enallage TJw Enallage 

L'Iperbato The Hyperbole 

Of the Ellipsis. 

The Ellipsis is that figure by which some part of speech is left 
out; but without rendering the sense of the sentence obscure or 
incomprehensible. This figure has been very frequently used by 
ancient writers, and even at present it is so frequent as to be used 
in the familiar style. 

1. The Ellipsis of the substantive is effected by omitting the 
substantive, when it is united with its adjective, and may easily be 
imagined; as, 

B. 2. 5. Niuno male si fece nella caduta, quantunque alquanto 
cadesse da alto ; that is, da alto luogo. 



460 



APPENDIX. 



B. 4. 2. Io ci tornerd, e darottene tante, ch' io ti faro tristo per 
tutto il tempo che viverai ; that is, tante busse. 

2. The Ellipsis of the adjective is effected by suppressing one of 
these adjectives, buono, abile, capace, when accompanied with di or 
a tanto, di or a molto, changing di or a into da ; as, 

B. 6. 2. E sempre poi per da molto l'ebbe e per amico; that is, 
buono a molto, abile, 

B. 2. 3. Fu da tanto, tanto seppe fare, ch' egli pacified il figliuol 
col padre ; that is, fu tanto abile, or capace di tanto. 

B. 6. 10. Non suspicd, che cio Guccio Balena gli avesse fatto, 
perciocche nol conosceva da tanto; that is, nol conesceva tanto abile, 
or capace di tanto. 

3. The Ellipsis of the verb, either finite or in the infinitive, is 
effected by omitting a part of a verb, when it is accompanied with 
adverbs expressive of wonder or astonishment; such as, appena 9 
maraviglia, possibile, impossibile, or with words expressive of impre- 
cation or blessing, such as, maladetto, benedetto, &c. 

B. Introd. II che se dagli occhi di molti, e da' miei non fosse 
stato veduto ; appena che io ardissi di crederlo, non che di scriverlo; 
that is, appena e che io ardissi, &c. 

B. 8. 6. Maraviglia, che se' stato una volta savio ; that is, mara- 
viglia e, che se 9 stato. 

B. 10. 9, Con poche parole rispose; impossibil, che mai i suoi 
beneficj, e *1 suo volere di mente gli uscissero : that is, essere impos- 
sibile che mai, &c. 

In like manner we say, in narrations, ed egli a me, ed io lui ; instead 
of ed egli disse a me, ed io risposi a lui. 

4. The Ellipsis of the participle. 

B. 10. 9. M. Torello in quell' abito, che era, con lo abate se 
n' ando alia casa del novello sposo ; that is, di cui era vestito. 

5. The Ellipsis of the preposition is made, by omitting the pre- 
position da, which precedes the infinitives mangiare, bere, beccare, 
that are governed by the verb dare, provided between dare and the 
said infinitives no adverb intervenes ; as, 

B. 2. 9. Al quale il Soldano avendo alcuna volta dato mangiare... 
al Catalano il domando ; that is, dato a mangiare. 

B. 2. 7. Ordino con colui, che a lei serviva, che di varj vini 
mescolati le desse bere ; that is, le desse da bere. 

B. 5. 10. Pareva santa Veridiana che da beccare alle serpi 3 that 
is, da da beccare. 

B. 3. 1. Lusingalo, fagli vezzi, dagli ben da mangiare. In this 
example the Ellipsis of da, cannot have place, because the adverb 
ben is put between dare and mangiare. 



APPENDIX. , 461 

The Ellipsis of the preposition is also made by omitting per, 
when it is accompanied with nouns of space or time ; as, 

B. 2. 7. E quasi si ficcd nella rena, vicino al lito forse una gittata 
di pietra ; that is, per una gittata. 

B. 8. 10. Pagato Pietro, ed ogni altro, a cui alcuna cosa dovea, 
piu di col Canigiano si die buon tempo ; that is, per piu di. 

The Ellipsis of per is very frequent; but that of da, as above, is 
better known than imitated. 

6. The Ellipsis of the adverb is effected by omitting cosi, when 
it is accompanied with the optative, or rather with that mood ex- 
pressive of desire ; as, 

B. Introd. Ora fossero essi pur disposti a venire ; that is, ora cost 
fossero. 

7. The Ellipsis of the conjunction is effected by omitting e when 
it connects two adjectives, and che when it is governed by a verb 
implying doubt and suspicion ; as, 

B. 2. 9. Io sono la misera sventurata Zinevra; that is, la miser a e 
sventurata Zinevra. 

B. Concl. Continua fraternal dimesticanza mi ci e paruto vedere ; 
that is, continua e fraternal dimesticanza. 

B. 2. 9. Siracusano vedendol ridere, suspico, non costui in alcuno 
atto Tavesse raffigurato ; that is, suspico che non costui. 

The Ellipsis of che is also made, when it is governed by the verbs 
pensare, vedere, mostrare; as, 

B. 10. 8. E pensd, piu non fossero senza risposta da comportare 
le lor novelle ; that is, pensd che piu non fossero. 

B. 5. 2. Avendo Tanimo pieno d'ira, e di mal talento per quello 
che vedeva, gli era fatto, ripreso il suo mantello, s' usci della 
camera; that is, per quello che vedeva, che gli era fatto. 

B. 7. 9. Del quale amore, o che Pirro non s' avvedesse, o non 
volesse, niente mostrava, se ne curasse; that is, niente mostrava 
die se ne curasse. 

Che as a relative, has been sometimes suppressed 

B. 4. End. E forse piu dichiarato V avrebbe V aspetto di tal donna, 
nella danza era, se le tenebre della sopravvenuta notte, il rossore 
nel viso di lei venuto, non avesser nascoso ; that is, tal donna, che 
nella danza era. 

But as this sort of Ellipsis is very seldom found, it is not to be 
imitated. 

The Ellipsis of many other words, such as gerunds, personal 
pronouns, and demonstrative pronouns, may be enumerated here; 
but as we have spoken sufficiently of them in their respective places, 
we refer the student to them. 

x 2 



46$ APPENDIX. 

Of the Pleonasm. 

The Pleonasm is that figure by which some part of speech may be 
introduced into the discourse without necessity, and which serves to 
render it more explicit and clear. 

1. The Pleonasm is effected by repeating the personal pronouns 
in the same phrase. 

B. 10. Z. Comeche ogni altro uomo molto di lui si lodi, io me 
ne posso poco lodare io. 

B. 6. Begin. Vatti con Dio : credi tu saper piu di me tu, che non 
hai ancora rasciutti gli occhj ? 

Io and tu, being repeated in these examples, add energy to the 
phrases, and render them clearer. 

2. It is effected by putting the preposition con with meco, teco, 
seco, which words include another con; as, con me, con te, con se; 
as, 

B. 5. 8. Farete pure, che domane, o V altro di, egli qui con meco 
se ne venga a dimorare. 

B. 8. 10. Spero d' avere assai buon tempo conteco, 

3. It is effected by adding some verb, not necessary to the sense, 
but as a peculiarity of the language. The most in use are, 

Dovere, accompanied with an infinitive. 

B. 1. 2. Richiese i chierici di la dentro, che ad Abramo dovessero 
dare il battesimo ; that is dessero il battesimo. 

B. 2. 5. S' avviso questa donna dovere essere di lui innamorata ; 
that is, questa donna essere di lui. 

Venire accompanied with infinitives and participles. 

B. 10. 10. II che quando venni aprender moglie, gran paura ebbi, 
che non m' intervenisse ; that is, quando presi moglie. 

B. 8. 5. Tutto il venne considerando ; that is, tutto il consider o. 

B. 1.6. Gli venne trovato un buono uomo ; that is, trovo un buono 
uomo. 

Andare with gerunds. 

B. Introd. A me medesimo incresce andarmi tra tante miserie 
ravvolgendo. Andarmi ravvolgendo for ravvolgermi. 

B. Introd. Vanno fuggendo quello che noi cerchiamo di fuggire, 
Vanno fuggendo fovfuggono. 

To this figure belong the expletives. 

Expletives are words which, though not absolutely necessary to 
the discourse, serve to adorn it. 

Grammarians have divided these words into four classes. 



APPENDIX. 463 

I. Words of evidence. 

II. Words of ornament. 

III. Words that accompany nouns. 

IV. Words that accompany verbs. 

The words of evidence, which serve to add energy to the 
composition, are, 

1. Ecco, which is generally put in the beginning of a sentence, 
and shows a quickness of action. Ex. 

B. 8. 7. Ecco io non so ora dir di no, per tal donna me n' hai 
pregato. 

B. 1. 2. Ecco, Giannotto a te piace che io divenga cristiano, ed 
io son disposto a farlo. 

Sometimes it is used in derision. Ex. 

B. 9. 5. Ecco bello innamorato, or non ti conosci tu tristo? 

2. Bene, or bene, are used in the beginning of exclamatory sen- 
tences. Ex. 

B. 8. 2. Bene, Belcolore, demi tu far sempre morire a questo 
modo ? 

B. 5. 1. Or bene, come faremo ? 

3. Bene, sz bene, serve to affirm. Ex. 

B. 9. 7. E ancora da capo te ne consiglio, che tu oggi ti stea in 
casa, o almeno ti guardi d' andare nel nostro bosco. La donna 
disse : bene il faro. 

B. 9. 5. Daratti egli il cuore di toccarla con un brieve, ch' io ti 
daro ? Disse Calandrino ; si bene. 

4. Bene may without necessity be added to nouns, pronouns, 
verbs, and adverbs. Ex. 

B. 7. 2. Egli ci son de' ben leggiadri, che mi amano. 

B. 2 1. Egli e qua un malvagio uomo, che m' ha tagliata la borsa 
con ben cento fiorini d' oro. 

B. 4. 10. Voi sapete bene il legnajuolo, dirimpetto al quale era 
1' area. 

5. Bello is adjectively used as an expletive. Ex. 

B. 2. 9. Per belle scritte di lor mano s* obbligarono V uno all* 
altro. 

B. 8. 10. Le portd cinquecento be' fiorini d' oro. 

6. Pure adds evidence. Ex. 

B. 5. 10. Fa pure, che tu mi mostri qual ti piace, e lascia poi 
far a me. 

B. 2. 5. La cosa ando pur cosi. 

7. Gid renders the sentence more energetic. 



464 



APPENDIX. 



B. 10. 5. II nigromante disse: gid Dio non voglia....ch' io simil- 
mente non sia liberale del mio guiderdone. 

8. Mai is used to affirm, as well as to deny. 
B. 8. 7. Se mai mi viene innanzi. 

B. 2. 7. Ti priego che mai ad alcuna persona dichi d' avermi 
veduta. 

Mai is united to si, no, sempre, to heighten the force of the ex- 
pressions ; as, maisi, maino, mai sempre, or sempre mai. 

B. 3. 8. Come, disse Ferondo, dunque sono io morto ? Disse il 
monaco : maisi, &c. 

9. Mica and punto are united to the negative non, Ex. 

B. 10. 6. Una ne dird, non mica d 9 uomo di poco affare. 
B. 3. 7. Madonna, Tedaldo non e punto morto, ma e vivo, e 
sano. 

10. Tutto adds energy. Ex. 

B. 2. 7. II famiglio trovo la gentil giovane tutta timida star 
nascosta. 

B. 1. 4. Tutto rassicurato estimo il suo avviso dovere avere 

effetto. 

11. Via, united with verbs, increases their strength ; as, 

B. 9. 1. E cosi questa seccagine torro via. 

The words of ornament which serve to adorn the discourse, and 
render it at the same time energeticj are the following. 

1. Egli, ella, esso, as expletives, were spoken of in page 284, 
which see. 

2. Ora is generally used to recommence a discourse, or to con* 
tinue it. Ex. 

B. 5. 4. Come non sapete voi quello, che questo voglia dire ? 
Ora io ve V ho udito dire mille volte. 

B. o. 6. Ora le parole furono assai, ed il rammarichio della donna 
grande. 

Sometimes ora, seems to express a wish. Ex. 

B. 8. 9. Deh or t' avessono essi affogato, come essi ti gittaron la, 
dove tu eri degno d' esser gittato. 

3. Si is used as an ornament, and belongs only to our lan- 
guage. 

B. 6. 9. Oltre a quello, ch' egli fu ottimo filosofo naturale, si fu 
egli leggiadrissimo e costumato. 

B. 9. 9. Se ti piace, si ti piaccia, se non, si te ne sta. 

4. Non is put with the comparatives, which see, and also with 



APPENDIX. 465 

verbs governed by other verbs expressive of fear, suspicion, doubt, 
&c. for examples of which see page 586. 

The words that accompany nouns, and those that accompany 
verbs, are uno, alcuno, mi, ti, si, ci, vi, ne, which add strength and 
ornament to the discourse. We refrain from giving examples here, 
because they have been treated of in their respective places. 

OF THE ENALLAGE. 

The Enallage is that figure by which one part of speech is put 
for another; and it is very frequently used by Italian writers of 
note and celebrity. 

It is effected by putting 

1. The infinitive for a substantive. Ex. 

B. 8. 9. E da questo viene il nostro viver lieto,che voi vedete. II 
nostro vivere for la nostra vita, 

2. The adjective for an adverb. Ex. 

B. 1. 2 Ora tutto aperto ti dico, che per niuna cosa lascerei di 
cristiano farmi. Aperto for apertamente. 

B. 2. 5. Ahi lassa me, che assai chiaro conosco, come io ti sia poco 
cara ! Chiaro for chiaramente. 

3. The participle for the infinitive. Ex. 

B. 10. 10. Fece venire sue lettere contrafatte da Roma, e fece 
veduto a* suoi sudditi, il papa per quelle aver seco dispensato di 
poter torre altra moglie. Veduto for vedere. 

4. The infinitive for the subjunctive. Ex. 

B. 5. 10. Qui ha questa cena, e non saria chi mangiarla. Chi 
mangiarla for chi la mangiasse. 

5. The subjunctive for the indicative. Ex. 

B. 6. beg. Vedi bestia d' uomo che ardisce, dove io sia, a parlar 
prima di me. Dove io sia for dove io sono. 

6. The past for the present. Ex. 

B. 7. 7. Anichino gitto un grandissimo sospiro. La donna guar- 
datolo disse : or che avesti, Anichino ? Duolti cosi che io ti vinco ? 
Che avesti for che hai. 

7. The imperfect of the subjunctive for the pluperfect. 

Nov. Ant. 94. Alzo questo la spada, e ferito 1' avrebbe, se non 
fosse uno che stava ritto innanzi, che lo teneva per lo braccio. 

B. 8. 7. E se non fosse, che egli era giovane, e sopravveniva il 
caldo, egli avrebbe avuto troppo a sostenere. 

In these two examples se non fosse stands for se non Josse stato> 



466 APPENDIX. 

which is clearly shown by the correlative verbs, ferito V avrebbe, 
and avrebbe avuto, being compound tenses. 

8. The simple conditional for the compound. Ex. 

B. 1. 1. Egli sono state assai volte il dl, che io vorrei piuttosto 
essere stato morto, che vivo, veggendo i giovani andare dietro alle 
vanita. Vorrei for avrei voluto. 

9. The particle se for cosi. 

B. 9. 10. Se m 9 ajuti Iddio, tu se' povero, ma egli sarebbe merce 
che tu fossi molto piu. Se m 9 ajuti for cosi m 9 ajuti. 

The Enallage is also effected by putting one verb for another, 
such as, fare for procurare, sapere for potere, portare for sopportare, 
and a great many more, which may be found in the Dictionary of 
Peculiarities. 

OF THE HYPERBATE. 

Grammarians have enumerated five sorts of Hyperbates,but some 
of them are now become obsolete. We shall speak only of those 
most in use, which are 

L' Anastrofe The Anastrophe 

La Tmesi The Tmesis 

La Parentesi The Parenthesis 

The Anastrophe is effected by putting 

1. A substantive between two adjectives. Ex. 

B. 2. 6. Videvi due cavrioli, forse il di medesimo nati, i quali le 
parevano la piu dolce cosa del mondo, e la piu vezzosa. Cosa a 
substantive put between dolce and vezzosa, both adjectives. 

B. 4. 2. Un uomo di scelerata vita e di corrotta. Vita a sub- 
stantive, put between scelerata and corrotta, both adjectives. 

2. A verb between two adverbs, an adverb and some other part 
of speech, which by nature go together. Ex. 

B. 4. 1. Prima gli voile sgridare, poi prese partito di tacersi, e 
starsi nascoso se egli potesse, per potere piu cautamenteyizre, e con 
minore sua vergogna quello che gia gli era caduto nelP animo di 
dover fare. Fare a verb, put between cautamente and minore 
adverbs. 

3. The genitive belonging to two substantives, between them. 

B. 4. 1. Lasciate hai le miserie del mondo e le fatiche. Del mondo 
a genitive, put between miserie and fatiche, instead of le miserie e le 
fatiche del mondo. 

4. The verb between two accusatives which it governs. 

B. 4. 2. La donna come desinato ebbe, presa sua compagnia, se 



APPENDIX. 467 

n' andd a Frate Alberto, e novelle gli disse dell* Agnolo Gabriello, e 
do che da lui aveva udito. Disse, a verb, put between novelle and 
do both accusatives of disse, instead of e gli disse novelle dell 1 Agnolo 
Gabriello e do. 

5. An adverb superlative between two adjectives to which it 
belongs. Ex. 

B. 4. 3. E quando dimestico assai ed amico di costor esser gli 
parve.... disse loro. Assai, the adverb superlative, put between 
dimestico and amico, both adjectives. 

6. The relative, with all its appurtenances, between two substan- 
tives with their adjectives, which are the antecedents of the said 
relative. Ex. 

B. 4. 4. E tra gli altri, alle cui orecchie la magnifica fama delle 
virtu e della cortesia del Gerbin venne, fu ad una figliuola del Re 
di Tunisi, la qual....era una delle piu belle creature, che mai dalla 
natura fosse stata formata, e la piu costumata. Che mai dalla natura 
fosse stata formata, the relative and all its appurtenances, put 
between una delle piu belle creature, and e la piu costumata, both 
antecedents of che, 

7. A verb with its infinitive between the objective case of the 
said infinitive, and the oblique case or infinitive with a preposition 
governed by the said objective case, Ex. 

B. 4. 4, E seco spesso pensava, se modo veder potesse di volerla 
torre per forza. Veder potesse the verb with its infinitive, put 
between modo the objective case of vedere, and di voter an infini- 
tive with the preposition di, governed by modo. 

The Tmesis is effected by dividing a word which is a compound of 
two or more, such as, acciocche, comeche, nondimeno, perdocche, po- 
sdache, compounds of accio and che, come and che, non di and meno, 
percio and che, poscia and che, &c. &c, and putting one or more 
words, which are next to them, between. Ex. 

B. 5. 9. A me omai appartiene di ragionare, ed io il faro volontieri, 
ne accio solamente che conosciate, quanto la vostra vaghezza possa 
ne' cuor gentili; ma perche apprendiate, &c. Ne accio solamente 
che for ni solamente acciocche. 

Mor. S. Greg. E come queste parole che special mente dette sieno. 
E come queste parole che for e comeche queste parole. 

B. 4. 1. E comeche tu uomo in parte ne' tuoi migliori anni, nelle 
armi esercitato ti sii, non dovevi dimeno conoscer quello, che gli ozj 
e le delicatezze possano, ne' vecchj, non che ne' giovani. Non 
dovevi dimeno for nondimeno dovevi, 

Davanzati. Perdo solamente che si sdegnava ubbidire essendo zio 
e vecchio al giovane nipote. Perdo solamente che, for perdocche 
solamente. 



468 APPENDIX. 

B 2. 10. Donna simil dolore non si senti mai a quello, che io ho 
poscia portato, che io ti perdei. Che io ho poscia portato eke for che 
io ho portato posciache. 

As the Parenthesis is well known, we refrain from saying any thing 
about it. 

To the Hyperbate belongs that transposition of words which are 
put sometimes before and sometimes after the verb. 

Besides the four figures here enumerated, we have another called 
Sillessi, Syllepsis, which is effected by making the parts of speech 
disagree with one another, paying more attention to the sense than 
to the rules of grammar; such as, ilpopolo sono, la persona il quale, 
ogni cosa disparuto, instead of il popolo e, la persona la quale, ogm 
cosa disparuta; but this figure is no longer in use. 



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of the SPANISH LANGUAGE, with a copious Vocabulary, Dia- 
logues, a Correspondence, Fables, and Prose and Poetical Extracts 
from the best Authors. By L E. Mordente. Fourth Edition. 
12mo. Price 6s. bound. 

EXERCISES in the SPANISH LANGUAGE, 
adapted to the Grammar by I. E. Mordente. 12mo. Price 
6s. bound. 

• A DICTIONARY of the SPANISH and ENG- 
LISH LANGUAGES. Compiled from the improved Editions of 
Neuman and Baretti. 2 vols. 8vo. Price 30s. boards. 

A POCKET EDITION of NEUMAN and BA- 
RETTFS DICTIONARY. Price 9s. bound. 



March, 1837. 

New Publications and Standard Works in Theology 
and Miscellaneous Literature, 

PUBLISHED BY 

JAMES DUNCAN, 

37 PATERNOSTER ROW. 



PROOFS and ILLUSTRATIONS of the ATTRIBUTES of 

GOD, from the Facts and Laws of the Physical Universe being the Founda- 
tion of Natural and Revealed Religion. By the late John Macculloch, 
M.D., F.R.S., &c. In Three Vols. 8vo, 36s. boards. 

** The invisible things of Him from the creation of the world are clearly seen, being un- 
derstood by the things that are made, even His eternal power and godhead."— Romans, i. 20. 



A COMMENTARY upon the PROPHECIES of ZACHA- 

RIAH. By the Rabbi David Kimchi. Translated from the Hebrew, 
with Notes and Observations on the Passages relating to the Messiah. By 
the Rev. Alexander M'Caul, A.M., of Trinity College, Dublin. In 
8vo, 7*. boards. 

A TRANSLATION of, and COxMMENTARY on, the BOOK 

of JOB; with an Introduction. By Samuel Lee, D.D., Regius Pro- 
fessor of Hebrew in the University of Cambridge. In One Vol. 8vo, (nearly 
ready.) 

A HEBREW and ENGLISH DICTIONARY. By Samuel 
Lee, D.D., Regius Professor of Hebrew in the University of Cambridge, 
&c. &c. In One large Vol. 8vo, (nearly ready.) 



The CANDIDATE for the MINISTRY; a Course of Expo- 

sitory Lectures on the First Epistle of Paul the Apostle to Timothy. By 
the Rev. John H. Pinder, M.A., Curate of St. Mary, Lambeth, (late 
Principal of Codrington College, Barbadoes, and Chaplain to the Bishop of 
the Diocess). In One Vol. 12mo, (nearly ready.) 



The BOOK of the NEW COVENANT of our LORD JESUS 

CHRIST; being a Critical Revision of the English Version of the New 
Testament, with the Aid of most ancient Manuscripts, unknown to the 
Age in which that Version was last put forth by Authority. In One Vol. 
8vo, 10s. cloth. 

Also, 
ANNOTATIONS to the BOOK of the NEW COVENANT, with an 
EXPOSITORY PREFACE; with which is reprinted I. L. Hug, " De 
Antiquitate Codieis Vaticani Comnientatio." By Granville Penn, Esq. 
In One Vol. 8vo, 155. cloth. 

»« The volumes themselves are full of the newest, most important, and most authentic 
suggestions on the very highest topics of Scriptuie. The notes are of great value, and touch 
upon nearly all the prominent difficulties of the text. The spirit of the performance is 
orthodox, reverential, and rational."— Literary Gazette. 



2 Valuable Works 

REMAINS of the late ALEXANDER KNOX, Esq, of 

Dublin, M.R.I.A., containing Letters and Essays on the Doctrines and 
Philosophy of Christianity, and the distinctive Character of the Church 
of England ; with Portrait, from a Bust by Chantrev. Second Edition. 
Two Vols. 8vo, 24s. boards. 

Also, nearly ready, 
Vols. III. and IV., containing Essays, chiefly explanatory of Christian 
Doctrine, and confidential Letters, with Private Papers, illustrative of the 
Writer's character, sentiments, and life. 



COMPANION for a SICK BED; consisting of Selections 
from Scripture and from the Book of Common Prayer ; with appropriate 
Hymns, adapted to the uses of a Sick Chamber. 4s. in cloth. 



NARRATIVE of a RESIDENCE in KOORDISTAN, and 
on the SITE of ANCIENT NINEVEH, with Journal of a Voyage down 
the Tigris to Bagdad, and an Account of a Visit to Sheraz and Persepolis, 
with Maps and a Plan of Nineveh from original Observations, and numerous 
Illustrations. By the late Claudius James Rich, Esq., the Honourable 
East India Company's Resident at Bagdad, author of " An Account of 
Ancient Babylon." In Two Vols. 8vo, 30s. cloth. 



THE LIFE of JOHN JEBB, D.D., F.R.S., late Bishop 

of Limerick, Ardfert, and Aghadoe. With a Selection from his Letters. By 
the Rev. Charles Forster, B.D., formerly Domestic Chaplain to Bishop 
Jebb, Perpetual Curate of Ash-next-Sandwich, and one of the Six Preachers 
in the Cathedral of Christ, Canterbury. Two Vols. 8vo, 26s. cloth with 
Portraits. 

f * The Life of this exemplary Prelate, this amiable, accomplished, and pious man, not 
only teems with the most weighty lessons, of a practical kind, for the imitation of every 
Churchman in England, and still more especially in Ireland at the present time, but it exhibits 
one of the most engaging and soundly constituted characters that have ever been delineated 
for the lasting benefit of mankind." — Monthly Review. 



THIRTY YEARS' CORRESPONDENCE between JOHN 

JEBB, D.D., F.R.S., Bishop of Limerick, Ardfert, and Aghadoe, and 
ALEXANDER KNOX, Esq. M.R.I.A. Edited by the Rev. Charles 
Forster, B.D., Perpetual Curate of Ash-next-Sandwich, and one of the 
Six Preachers in the Cathedral of Christ, Canterbury, formerly Domestic 
Chaplain to Bishop Jebb. Two Vols. 8vo. Second Edition, with Trans- 
lations of the Greek and Latin Passages, and an Index. 28s. boards. 



THE HOLY BIBLE; containing the OLD and NEW TES- 
TAMENTS, revised from Corrected Texts of the Original Tongues, and 
with former Translations diligently compared : with Critical and Explana- 
tory Notes. By B. Boothroyd, D.D., Editor of the " Biblia Hebraica," 
&c. &c. Forming a volume, in imperial octavo, of 1280 pages. Price 30s. 
cloth. 

The work announced comprises the Text of the Author's Family Bible and Improved 
Version, with such Corrections as a repeated and diligent perusal during the last ten years has 
suggested, aided by the many Biblical works which have been published since his own was 
completed. The results of the labours of the most eminent scholars and Biblical critics of 
past and present times, will here be foimd in a condensed form ; by which infidel objections 
are in many instances satisfactorily obviated, and the judicious English reader will be enabled 
to perceive the sense, coherence, and beauty of the Holy Scriptures. 



Published %James Duncan. 3 

THE DOCTRINE of ATONEMENT and SACRIFICE, 

evinced from the Scriptures, and confirmed from the Sacraments : Errors 
Considered, and Difficulties of Theists and Infidels Removed. By John 
Whitley, D.D. In One Vol. 8vo, 10s. 6d. bds. 



ESSAYS, THOUGHTS, and REFLECTIONS, and SER- 
MONS on VARIOUS SUBJECTS. By the Rev. Henry Woodward, 
A.M., formerly of Corpus Christi College, Oxford, Rector of Fethard, in 
the Diocess of Cashel. One Vol. 8vo. Third Edition. 12s. hoards. 

" There are some striking views on the Divine Omnipotence in a recent volume of Essays 
and Sermons, by the Rev. Henry Woodward of Ireland; a work replete with originality, and 
rich in the germs of high thought. From Dr. Chalmers' Works, now publishing. Vol. 2.— - 
Natural Theology, Vol 2, page 285. 

PRACTICAL THEOLOGY; comprising Discourses on the 
Liturgy and Principles of the United Church, of England and Ireland ; 
critical and other Tracts ; and a Speech delivered in the House of Peers in 
1824. By John Jebb, D.D., F.R.S., Bishop of Limerick, Ardfert, and 
Aghadoe. Two Vols- 8vo. Second Edition, 24s. boards. 

'« No work which has recently fallen into our hands more amply fulfils the promise of its 
title than that now before us." — Quarterly Theolog. Review. 
By the same Author, 

SACRED LITERATURE; comprising a Review of the Principles 
of Composition laid down by the late Robert Lowth, D.D. Lord Bishop 
of London, in his Prelections, and Isaiah ; and an application of the 
Principles so reviewed to the Illustration of the New Testament ; in a 
Series of Critical Observations on the Style and Structure of that Sacred 
Volume. One Vol. 8vo. New Edition, \2s. boards. 

SERMONS on Subjects chiefly Practical ; with illustrative Notes, and 
an Appendix relating to the Character of the Church of England, as dis- 
tinguished both from other Branches of the Reformation, and from the 
modern Church of Rome. Fourth Edition, corrected. One Vol. 8vo, 
105. 6d. boards. 

PASTORAL INSTRUCTIONS on the CHARACTER and PRIN- 
CIPLES of the CHURCH of ENGLAND, selected from his former 
Writings. One Vol. 7*. boards. 

Works edited by Bishop Jebb. 

LIVES of SIR MATTHEW HALE and the EARL of ROCHESTER : 
With Characters of ARCHBISHOP LEIGHTON, The HON. ROBERT 
BOYLE, QUEEN MARY, and OTHER EMINENT PERSONS, and 
an ADDRESS to POSTERITY. By Gilbert Burnet, D.D.,late 
Bishop of Sarum, with the Two Prefaces to the Dublin Editions. To which 
are now added, FIVE HITHERTO UNPUBLISHED LETTERS, by 
4nne, Countess Dowager of Rochester, upon her Son's Last Illness and 
Conversion, Edited with an Introduction and Notes. Second Edition, in 
Foolscap 8vo, Js. bds. 

%* A few copies may still be had of the first edition in 8vo, price 10s. 6d. 

THE PROTESTANT KEMPIS ; or, PIETY without ASCETICISM: 
a Manual of Christian Faith and Practice, selected from the Writings of 
Scougal, Charles Howe, and Cud worth ; with Corrections and occasional 
Notes. Second Edition, in Foolscap 8vo, %$. boards. 

%* The same work in One Vol. 8vo, first Edition, price 12s. boards. 

PRACTICAL DISCOURSES: a Selection from the unpublished Manu- 
scripts of the late Venerable Thomas Townson, D.D., Archdeacon of 
Richmond ; one of the Rectors of Malpas, Cheshire ; and some time Fellow 
of St. Mary Magdalen College, Oxford; with a Biographical Memoir, by 
Archdeacon Chub-ton. Third Edition, in One Vol. 8vo, price 10s. 6d. bds. 

THE REMAINS of WILLIAM PHELAN, D.D.; with a Biographi- 
cal Memoir. Second Edition. Two Vols. 8vo, 21s. boards. 



4 Valuable Works 

SIX SERMONS on the STUDY of the HOLY SCRIP- 
TURES, their Nature, Interpretation, and some of their most important 
Doctrines, preached before the University of Cambridge. To which are 
annexed Two Dissertations; the first on the Reasonableness of the 
Orthodox Views of Christianity as opposed to the Rationalism of Germany; 
the second on the Interpretation of Prophecy generally, with an ori- 
ginal Exposition of the Book of Revelation, shewing that the whole of 
that remarkable Prophecy has long ago been fulfilled. By the Rev. S. Lee, 
B.D., Regius Professor of Hebrew in the University of Cambridge. One 
Vol. 8vo, 14s. boards. 

MAHOMETANISM UNVEILED ; an Inquiry in which 
that Arch-Heresy, its Diffusion and Continuance, are examined on a new 
principle, tending to confirm the Evidences, and aid the Propagation, of 
the Christian Faith. By the Rev. Charles Forster, B.D., Perpetual 
Curate of Ash-next-Sandwich, and one of the Six Preachers in the Cathedral 
of Christ, Canterbury, formerly Domestic Chaplain to Bishop Jebb. Two 
Vols. 8vo, 24s. boards. 



THE WHOLE WORKS of the Most Reverend Father 
in God, ROBERT LEIGHTON, D.D., Archbishop of Glasgow. To which 
is prefixed an entire new Life of the Author, by the Rev. J. N. Pearson, 
M.A., of Trinity College, Cambridge, and Chaplain to the Most Noble the 
Marquess Wellesley. Four Vols. 8vo, with a Portrait, 36s. boards. 

" We have placed a new edition of Archbishop Leighton's Works at the head of this 
article; and, as Mr. Coleridge has neglected to furnish the biographical notice he had pro- 
mised, we shall endeavour to supply its place by a few particulars of his life and writings, 
principally extracted from a spirited and eloquent Memoir prefixed to the new edition, by 
the Rev. Norman Pearson. It is a reproach to the present age, that his valuable writings, 
breathing as they do the sublimest and purest spirit of piety, rich in beautiful images and 
classical learning, throughout abounding in practical reflections, and all expressed with the 
sweetest and simplest eloquence, should have been neglected among us." — British Critic. 

%* The above may be had, printed in a small but neat type, and com- 
pressed into Two Volumes, price 21s. boards. 
By the same Author, 
A PRACTICAL COMMENTARY upon the FIRST EPISTLE of 
ST. PETER, and other Expository Works. To which is prefixed an 
entire new Life of the Author, by the Rev. J. N. Pearson, M. A. Trinity 
College, Cambridge, &c. Two Volumes 8vo, with Portrait, 18s. boards. 
*** Compressed into One Volume, 10s. 6d. 



The WHOLE WORKS of the Right Rev. JEREMY TAY- 
LOR, D.D., Lord Bishop of Down, Connor, and Dromore, with a Life 
of the Author, and a Critical Examination of his Writings. By the Right 
Rev. Reginald Heber, D.D., late Lord Bishop of Calcutta. In 15 
Volumes 8vo, new edition, price 9/. boards. 

Also may be had separate, by the same Author, 

HOLY LIVING and DYING ; together with Prayers, containing the 
Whole Duty of a Christian, and the parts of Devotion fitted to all Occasions, 
and furnished for all Necessities. One Vol. small 8vo, *js. boards. 

%* This Edition has been carefully compared with the best octavo edi- 
tions, all others of the same size printed of late years being deficient in the 
Notes and the numerous quotations of the Author. 

A COURSE of SERMONS for all the SUNDAYS of the YEAR. 
Two Vols. 8vo, price 24s. boards. 

The LIFE of the Right Rev. JEREMY TAYLOR. In One Vol. 
8vo, with a Portrait, price 10s. 6d. boards 



Published %James Duncan. 5 

The WORKS of the Right Rev. WILLIAM BEVERIDGE, 

D.D., Lord Bishop of St. Asaph, now first collected : with a Memoir 
of the Author, and a Critical Examination of his Writings, by the Rev. 
Thomas Hartwell Horne, B.D., of St. John's College, Cambridge ; 
Author of the " Introduction to the Holy Scriptures." In Nine Vols. 
8vo, with a Portrait, uniform with the Works of Bishop Taylor, hi. 8s, 
boards. 



THE LAST DAYS of cur LORD'S MINISTRY ; a Course 

of Lectures delivered during Lent in Trinity Church, Coventry. By the 
Rev. Walter Farq.uhar Hook, M.A., Prebendary of Lincoln, Vicar of 
the Parish of the Holy Trinity, Coventry, and Chaplain in Ordinary to 
His Majesty. One Vol. 8vo, 10s. 6d. boards. 



A SECOND COURSE of SERMONS for the YEAR ; con- 
taining Two for each Sunday, and one for each Holyday ; abridged from 
the most eminent Divines of the Established Church, and adapted to the 
Service of the Day : intended for the Use of Families and Schools. Dedi- 
cated, by permission, to the Lord Bishop of London. By the Rev. J. R. 
Pitman, A.M., alternate Morning Preacher of Belgrave and Berkeley 
Chapels. In Two Vols. 8vo, 21s. boards. 

" There is no question which the Clergy are more frequently asked, and to which they 
find it more difficult to give a satisfactory reply, than this — What Sermons would they recom- 
mend for the use of a private family ? There are so many circumstances which render the 
greater part of modern discourses totally unfit for the purposes of domestic instruction, and 
the old standards, unmodernised, are so little intelligible to common ears, that it is no easy 
matter to point out any set of discourses embracing a sufficient variety to excite attention, 
at the same time forcibly inculcating the pure doctrines and practical precepts of Christianity. 
We really think that Mr. Pitman's work bids fair to supply the deficiency which has been so 
much regretted." — Quarterly Theelog. Review, 

%* A Third Edition, revised throughout, of the FIRST COURSE, is 
just published, same size and price as above. 



A SHORT HISTORY of the CHRISTIAN CHURCH, 

from its Erection at Jerusalem down to the Present Time. Designed for the 
Use of Schools, Families, &c. By the Rev. John Fry, B.A., Rector of 
Desford, in Leicestershire. One Vol. 8vo, 12s. boards. 

" His matter is unquestionably selected with judgment, and luminously arranged; his 
language is clear and concise, and not deficient in elegance ; and we rise from the perusal 
of his work with very favourable impressions of his character, with which otherwise we 
are unacquainted." — Theological Revieiv. 

'•' To sucn readers as wish for an Ecclesiastical History, written on the model of Milner's, 
and animated by the same spirit, Mr. F.'s work will be highly acceptable, particularly as 
it i^ complete, and comprised within a single volume." — Eclectic Review. 

By the same Author, 

OBSERVATIONS on the UNFULFILLED PROPHECIES of SCRIP- 
TURE, which are yet to have their Accomplishment before the coming of 
the Lord in Glory, or at the Establishment of his Everlasting Kingdom. 
One Vol. 8vo. 10s. 6d. boards. 

A NEW TRANSLATION and EXPOSITION of the very Ancient 
BOOK OF JOB ; with Notes, explanatory and philological. One Vol. 8vo, 
12s. boards. 

LECTURES, Explanatory and Practical, on the EPISTLE of ST. PAUL 
to the ROMANS. Second Edition, One Vol. 8vo, 12s. boards. 

CANTICLES ; or, SONG OF SOLOMON : a new Translation, with 
Notes, and an Attempt to interpret the Sacred Allegories contained in 
that Book ; to which is added, an Essay on the Name and Character of the 
Redeemer. One Vol. 8vo. Second Edition, 6s. boards. 



6 Valuable Works 

BIBLIA HEBRAICA, secundum ultimam editionem Jos. 
Athi^e, a Johanne Leusden denuo recognitam, recensita, atque ad 
Masoram, et correctiores, Bombergi, Stephani, Plantini, aliorumque edi- 
tiones, exquisite adornata, variisque notis illustrata. Ab Everardo Van 
Der Hooght, V.D.M. Editio nova, recognita, et emendata, a Judah 
D'Allemand. New Edition, in One Volume, on fine paper (1200 pages), 
price 21s. boards ; and on inferior paper, but very superior to any Foreign 
Edition, 15s. boards. 

" The most correct Edition of the Hebrew Scriptures is the last reprint of Van der Hooght's 
Hebrew Bible, which has been revised by Professor Hurwitz."— Journal of Education. 



A GRAMMAR of the HEBREW LANGUAGE; com- 

prised in a Series of Lectures, compiled from the best Authorities, and 
augmented with much Original Matter, drawn principally from Oriental 
Sources ; designed for the Use of Students in the Universities. By the 
Rev. S. Lee, B.D. ; D.D. of the University of Halle; Honorary Member 
of the Asiatic Society of Paris; Honorary Associate and F.R.S.L. and 
M.R.A.S. &c. &c. ; and Regius Professor of Hebrew in the University of 
Cambridge. Second Edition. One Vol. 8vo, 14s. boards. 

* m * Professor Lee is preparing (and nearly ready) for publication a 
HEBREW and ENGLISH DICTIONARY, in One large Vol. 8vo. 



AN ANALYSIS of the TEXT of the HISTORY of 
JOSEPH, upon the Principle of Professor Lee's HEBREW GRAM- 
MAR, and adapted to the Second Edition of it. By the Rev. Alfred 
Ollivant, D.D. F.C.P.S., late Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, Vice- 
Principal of St. David's College, and one of the Examining Chaplains to 
the Lord Bishop of St. David's. Third Edition, in One Vol. 8vo, 6s. 
boards. 

ELEMENTS of HEBREW GRAMMAR (without Points). 

To which is prefixed a Dissertation on the Two Modes of Reading, with 
or without Points. By Charles Wilson, D.D., late Professor of Church 
History in the University of St. Andrew's. Fifth Edition, in One Vol. 8vo, 
price 105. 6d. 

A HEBREW PRIMER ; intended as an Introduction to the 
Spelling and Reading of Hebrew with the Points, compiled for the Use 
of Children and Beginners. By the Rev. A. M'Caul, A.M., of Trinity 
College, Dublin. Fourth Edition. In octavo, Is. 6d. 



CHRISTIAN RECORDS ; or, a Short and Plain History 

of the CHURCH of CHRIST : containing the Lives of the Apostles ; 
an Account of the Sufferings of Martyrs ; the Rise of the Reformation, 
and the present State of the Christian Church. By the Rev. Thomas 
Sims, M.A. Sixth Edition. One Volume, 18mo, with a beautiful 
Frontispiece, 3s. 6d. boards. 

" Every Protestant child and young person should be generally acquainted with the outline 
of the history of the Church of Christ, and for this purpose we cannot recommend a better 
manual than that before us."— Christian Observer. 

*.* This little Volume has been in part translated into the modern Greek 
and Chinese languages, by the Rev. Mr. Jowett and Dr. Milne ; and 
the Author has received a Letter from the Right Rev. Dr. Corrie, Bishop 
of Madras, dated Ship Exmouth, 21 June, 1835, with the following inti- 

m ^' 1 Thave by me, and, intend to have printed,, please God I arrive at Mad™* the whole of Oik* 
tian Records 'translated into Hindoostanee. This language is used by Mahomcdans all oier 
India, and understood by most Hindoos." 



